TREAT'S   MEDICAL   CLASSICS. 

Octavo  volumes,  uniform  in  size  and  style  of  binding  (Cloth),  $2.      each. 


SYNOPSIS   OF   THE    PRACTICE   OF   MEDICINE. 

For  Practitioners  and  Students.  An  embodiment  of  the  late  Systems  and 
Cyclopaedia.  By  \Vm.  Blair  Stewart,  A.M.,  M.I).,  Lecturer  on  Thera- 
peutics, and  late  Instructor  in  Practice  of  Medicine  Medico-Chirurgical 
College,  Philadelphia. 

CLINICAL   DIAGNOSIS. 

By  Albert  Akrams,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Pathology,  Cooper  Medical  College, 
Pathologist  to  the  City  and  County  Hospital,  San  Francisco.     Third  Edition. 

MODERN   GYNECOLOGY. 

Comprising  the  latest  treatment  in  this  branch  of  Medical  Science.  By 
Charles  H.  Bushong,  M.D.,  Assistant  Gynecologist  and  Pathologist 
to  Demilt  Dispensary,  New  York. 

DISEASES   OF  THE   HAIR   AND   SCALP. 

By  George  Thomas  Jackson,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Dermathology,  Woman'.s 
Medical  College,  New  York  Infirmary ;  C'hief  of  Clinic  and  Instructor  in 
Dermathology,  College  of  Physicians  and   Surgeons,  etc. 

INSANITY;    A   MANUAL   OF. 

Its  Classification,  Diagnosis  and  Treatment.  By  E.  C.  Spitzka,  M.D., 
Professor  of  Medical  Jurisprudence  of  the  Nervous  System,  New  York 
Post-Graduate  School.     Second  Edition. 

NERVOUS   EXHAUSTION    (NEURASTHENIA). 

Its  Hygiene,  Causes,  Symptoms  and  Treatment.  By  George  M.  Beard, 
A.M.,  M.D.,  formerly  Lecturer  on  Nervous  Diseases  in  the  University  of  the 
City  of  New  York ;  P'ellow  of  the  New  York  Academy  of  Medicine,  etc. 
Third  Edition  Revised  and  Enlarged  by  A.  D.  Rockwell,  A.M.,  M.D., 
late  Professor  of  Electro-Therapeutics  in  the  New  York  Post-Graduate 
Medical    School   and    Hospital,  etc. 

SEXUAL   NEURASTHENIA. 

Devoted  to  Genital  Debility.  Its  Causes,  Symptoms  and  Treatment,  with 
a  Chapter  on  Diet  for  the  Nervous.  By  Gp:orge  M.  Beard,  A.M.,  M.D. 
Edited  by  A.  D.  Rockwell,  A.M.,  M.D.        Fifth  Edition. 

EXCESSIVE  VENERY,  MASTURBATION  AND  CONTINENCE. 

Their  Etiology,  Pathology  and  Treatment,  including  diseases  resulting 
therefrom.  By  Joseph  W.  Howe,  M.D.,  late  Professor  of  Clinical  Surgery 
in  Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  College ;  Fellow  of  the  New  York  Academy 
of  Medicine ;  Visiting  Surgeon  to  Charity  and  St.  Francis  Hospitals. 

DISEASES   OF  THE   NOSE   AND   THROAT. 

By  P.  Watson  Williams,  M.D.,  M.R.C.S.  (London),  Physician  in  charge 
of  Throat  Department,  Bristol  Royal  Infirmary ;  Honorary  Physician  to  the 
Institute  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb. 


SURGICAL  HANDICRAFT. 

A  Manual  of  Surgical  Manipulations,  and  Minor  Surgery.  By  Walter 
Pye,  F.R.C.S.,  Surgeon  to  St.  Mary's  Hospital  and  the  Victoria  Hospital 
for  Sick  Children,  of  Glasgow.  Revised  and  Edited  by  T.  H.  R.  Crowle, 
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OUTLINES 


OF 


PRACTICAL  HYGIENE 


BY 
C.    OILMAN    CURRIER,    M.D. 

ASSOCIATE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  SOCIETY  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS;    FELLOW  OF  THE  NEW  YORK 

ACADEMY  OF  MEDICINE;   MEMBER  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  PATHOLOGICAL  SOCIETY; 

FORMERLY   VISITING    PHYSICIAN    TO   THE    NEW    YORK   CITY  HOSPITALS; 

MEMBER  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PUBLIC  HEALTH  ASSOCIATION,  ETC. 


THIRD  EDITION,  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 


NEW  YORK 

E.     B.     TREAT     fi-     CO. 

242-244  WEST  TWENTY-THIRD  ST. 
rSpS 


A  sound  Mind  in  a  sound  Body,  is  a  short  but  full  Description  of 
a  happy  State  in  this  World.  He  that  hath  these  two,  hath  but  little 
more  to  wish  for;  and  he  that  wants  either  of  them,  will  be  but  lit- 
tle the  better  for  anything  else.  Men's  Happiness  or  Misery  is 
most  part  of  their  own  Making. 

loHN  Locke,  1692. 


Copyright,  1893,  1898,  bv 
C,  OILMAN   CURRIER 


"in^Q, 


PUBLISHER'S  NOTE  TO  THIRD  EDITION'. 

This  revised  and  enlarged  edition  is  believed  to  incorpor- 
ate all  of  essential  progress  in  sanitary  science  and  practical 
hygiene  that  has  been  established  up  to  the  present  date. 
The  work  has  been  in  use  as  a  text-book  in  some  of  our 
leading  Universities  and  independent  schools.  The  previous 
editions  have  been  completely  exhausted  ;  and  a  new  issue 
is  called  for  to  meet  present  demands.  The  opportunity 
has  been  used,  for  the  author  to  revise,  correct  and  enlarge 
the  work,  although  this  has  necessitated  some  delay. 

April,  i8g8. 


PREFACE 

The  preparation  of  this  book  was  undertaken  at  the 
instance  of  busy  practitioners  and  students  who  emphasized 
the  lack  of  a  compendious  work  upon  practical  hygiene 
embodying  the  most  modern  truths  and  which,  at  the 
same  time,  was  adapted  especially  to  American  conditions. 
While  the  subject-matter  has  been  shaped  in  conformity  to 
these  requirements,  the  most  recent  work  of  foreign  inves- 
tigators and  practical  men  has  been  fully  considered,  and 
their  results  have  been  incorporated  in  the  following  pages 
wherever  suitable. 

Besides  having  at  his  command  all  modern  treatises  of 
importance  that  bear  any  relation  to  the  subjects  touched 
upon,  the  author  has  zealously  and  regularly  consulted  the 
current  periodical  literature  that  has  appeared  up  to  the 
date  of  publication  of  this  book. 

Some  of  the  monographs  used  have  been  indicated  in  the 
text.  In  view  of  the  existence  of  the  Index  published  by 
the  Board  of  Ma?iagers  of  the  Association  of  Engineering 
Societies^  and  also  of  the  Index  Medicus  and  of  other  accessi- 
ble catalogues  of  new  and  old  literature,  it  seems  out  of 
place  to  attempt  in  a  single,  small  book  of  this  character  to 
give  a  bibliography.  The  best  books  of  this  kind  rarely 
attempt  it.  Those  which  essay  it  produce  only  unsatis- 
factory and  necessarily  incomplete  results.     Even  a  par- 


IV  PREFACE 

tially  complete  list  of  the  works  consulted  would  seriously 
increase  the  size  of  the  volume. 

In  addition  to  using  his  own  and  the  principal  special 
libraries,  the  author  has  striven  to  control  his  statements 
by  verbal  criticisms  from  intelligent  workers  who  are  not 
prone  to  publish  their  views,  yet  whose  opinions  are  of 
extreme  value. 

The  dominating  principle  throughout  the  entire  text  has 
been  to  maintain  a  judicial  attitude  in  every  detail,  allow- 
ing no  scope  to  vagaries.  Accepted  truths  alone  are  em- 
bodied in  the  teachings  of  these  chapters.  Very  positive 
opinions  advanced  upon  any  subject  are  rarely  given  unless 
they  are  those  of  the  majority  of  leading  thinkers.  In  the 
few  cases  where  very  limited  authority  exists  for  an  opinion, 
attention  is  especially  called  to  that  fact.  In  speaking  of 
influenza,  no  mention  of  Pfeiffer's  bacilli  is  made,  since  they 
are  neither  generally  accepted  nor  practically  important. 

Even  the  views  regarding  "  sewer-gas  "  are  not  those  of 
any  one  person,  although  they  were  most  forcibly  impressed 
upon  the  author  while  he  listened  to  the  lectures  of  Pro- 
fessor Robert  Koch,  of  Berlin,  some  years  ago.  So,  too, 
in  the  pages  upon  Climate,  the  principles  enounced  embody 
the  condensed  opinions  of  many  who  have  studied  the  ques- 
tion for  years.  Wherever  errors  have  been  alluded  to,  it 
has  been  because  of  their  prevalence,  and  they  have  been 
estimated  as  fairly  as  possible. 

Being  devoted  strictly  to  the  preve?ition  of  disease,  the 
book  does  not  discuss  therapeutic  measures  except  in  so 
far  forth  as  they  belong  legitimately  within  the  domain  of 
hygiene. 


PREFACE  V 

Since  the  purpose  throughout  has  been  to  make  impor- 
tant truths  as  clear  as  possible,  simple  expressions  and  the 
most  intelligible  terms  have  been  employed.  Greek  and 
other  foreign  synonyms  have  not  been  unnecessarily  intro- 
duced. The  book  is  designed  to  elucidate  the  truths  of 
science,  and  not  to  mask  them  :  accordingly,  all  jargon  has 
been  excluded  as  fully  as  possible. 

While  most  of  the  illustrations  have  been  prepared  espe- 
cially for  this  work,  some  are  from  outside  sources  not  ex- 
pressly acknowledged  in  the  body  of  the  book.  Fig.  15  is 
from  the  Chauncy  Hall  School  in  Boston.  Fig.  37  is  from 
Prausnitz.  Figs.  12  and  13  are  from  the  Barstow  Co. 
Figs.  30,  ;^6  and  $6a  are  after  designs  by  the  Sturtevant 
Co.  Figs.  49  and  51,  from  the  Dubois  Co.  Mr.  Mackay, 
of  the  National  Boiler  Co.,  provided  the  original  of  Fig.  24. 
Gillis  and  Geogheghan  supplied  drawings  from  which  Figs. 
21  and  23  were  prepared. 

To  Dr.  S.  T.  Armstrong,  Mr.  L.  De  C.  Berg,  Prof. 
Charles  Carpmael,  Sergeant  E.  B.  Dunn,  General  A.  W. 
Greely,  Mr.  L.  D.  Hosford,  Dr.  C.  H.  Knight,  Dr.  William 
B.  Wood,  thanks  are  due. 

Of  the  very  many  others  to  whom  he  is  indebted,  the 
author  feels  bound  especially  to  thank  the  officials  and 
workers  of  the  Canadian  Inland  Revenue  Department,  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey  and  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  (including  the  Weather  Bureau).  The 
results  of  researches  by  special  experimenters  and  labora- 
tories have  been  used  as  freely  as  the  limited  size  of  the 
book  would  permit. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Soil  and  Climate .        .        .  i 

Clothing  and  Protection  of  the  Body       ....  42 

Bathing  and  Personal  Hygiene 56 

Physical  Exercise 70 

Schools,  and  their  Influence  on  Health          ...  88 

Occupation no 

Lighting 124 

Buildings  and  Streets 140 

Heating 160 

Ventilation 194 

Foods 214 

Food  Preparation  and  Adaptation 250 

Diet 267 

Water  and  Water  Supplies 285 

Disposal  of  Fluid  Waste.     Sewers 315 

House  Drainage.     Plumbing 333 

Other  Disposal  of  Human  Excreta 359 

Disposal  of  Garbage  and  Other  Solid  Refuse  .        .        .  368 

Disposal  of  the  Dead 372 

Bacteria  and  Disease 378 

Infectious  Diseases 397 

Disinfection.    Restriction  of  Communicable  Diseases      .  430 
Vital  Statistics,     Longevity.     Degeneracy      .        .        .457 

Index 47i 


OUTLINES     OF 
PRACTICAL    HYGIENE 

SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

Climate  is  dependent  chiefly  on  the  heat  that  the  surface 
of  the  earth  receives  from  the  sun,  and  on  the  way  in  which 
great,  continuous  oceanic  and  atmospheric  currents  move  to 
distribute  this  warmth.  The  high  heat  of  the  interior  of  the 
globe  has  no  effect  upon  our  climate. 

The  crust  of  the  globe,  upon  which  we  live,  is  of  rock- 
formations  having  each  a  varying  number  of  mineral  com- 
ponents. By  the  mechanical  action  of  past  or  present 
glacial  ice  in  motion,  and  by  the  influence  of  water  and 
weather,  as  well  as  of  minor  factors,  these  rocks  have  been 
much  worn  away.  Thus  diluvial  and  alluvial  matter,  and 
also  loose  rock-masses  of  various  sizes,  have  been  produced, 
and  transported  perhaps  to  a  considerable  distance.  In 
this  way  most  of  our  soil  is  formed.  When  these  broken-up 
mineral  substances  are  suitable,  and  when  climatic  and  other 
conditions  favor,  vegetation  arises,  and  from  the  resulting 
products  much  soil  is  further  added. 

With  animal  life  (and  the  burrowing  of  worms),  by  the 
results  of  human  influence  and  the  products  of  civilization, 
there  come  still  further  additions  and  changes.  These  latter 
factors  may  be  very  important.  Schliemann,  in  excavating 
at  the  site  of  ancient  Troy,  had  to  remove  more  than  fifty 
feet  of    "dirt."      Then,  beneath    the    Grecian    city  Ilion 


2  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

were  six  different  town  locations,  each  of  which  was  built 
upon  the  dirt-covered  ruins  of  its  predecessor. 

Artificial  soils,  in  the  course  of  time,  resemble  those 
formed  wholly  by  purely  natural  processes,  and  may  become 
hygienically  fit  for  the  location  of  residences.  Yet  organic 
waste,  in  an  incompletely  transformed  state,  is  an  element 
of  danger  and  should  be  guarded  against. 

In  choosing  a  location  for  a  dwelling,  it  is  well  in  general 
to  avoid  very  flat  ground.  A  gentle  slope  is  much  better. 
Especially  undesirable  are  the  bottoms  of  depressions  hav- 
ing no  drainage  outlet  for  the  excessive  subsoil  moisture  (or 
ground- water),  as  malaria  and  other  diseases  are  to  be  feared 
in  such  localities. 

A  bald,  treeless  and  grassless  plain  is  undesirable  as  giv- 
ing too  great  temperature  changes.  A  deep,  narrow  valley 
is  objectionable  in  that  it  has  insufficient  circulation  of  air. 
Neither  an  open  summit  nor  a  flat  surface  at  the  foot  of  a 
hill  is  as  satisfactory  from  a  hygienic  point  of  view  as  the 
intervening  slope.  The  upper  half  of  a  declivity  furnishes 
usually  the  most  desirable  site.  If  there  be  a  well-drained 
break  above  in  the  continuity  of  the  slope,  it  is  of  value  as 
intercepting  the  ground-water  and  lessening  any  possible 
dampness  of  the  site.  Evergreen  trees,  growing  on  the  up- 
hill side  of  the  residence,  temper  the  severity  of  cold  night 
air.  Trees  on  the  northern  side  of  a  site  serve  as  a  valuable 
wind-break  in  winter.  The  location  should  be  such  as  to 
afford  an  abundance  of  sunlight. 

Sandy  and  gravelly  soils,  allowing  the  underground 
water  to  drain  out  freely,  are  dry  and  therefore  desirable. 
Unless  the  sand  is  in  very  fine  grains,  these  soils  furnish  a 
very  durable  foundation.  If  stony  or  clay  depressions  under- 
lie a  soil,  and  thereby  cause  it  to  retain  water  permanently, 
such  stagnant  water  under  the  surface  causes  a  sandy,  loamy, 
or  other  soil  to  be  unhealthful.  With  clay  soils,  great  impor- 
tance attaches  to  careful  drainage  so  adapted  that  no  water 


MOISTURE    IN    THE    GROUND  3 

stands  in  the  ground.  Rocky  foundations  should  likewise 
always  have  the  water  that  comes  to  them  drained  off. 
Even  the  firmest  rocks  will  (when  dry)  take  up  and  retain  a 
varying  percentage  of  moisture.  Ordinary  soils  can  hold 
a  very  large  amount  of  water  by  means  of  their  innumerable 
particles.  When  drainage  is  defective,  this  ground-water 
(or  "  soil-water  ")  is  not  freshened,  and  an  excess  of  water 
is  present  which  becomes  stagnant  and  unheal thful.  If  such 
ground  be  so  situated  that  it  is  occasionally  kept  moist  for  a 
long  time  and  then  drained  naturally,  it  is  less  healthful 
than  a  porous  soil  that  is  always  well  drained. 

When  the  ground  is  frozen,  the  amount  of  water  present 
is  increased  by  one-tenth.  The  ground  has  then  lost  its 
permeability  to  water,  and  it  also  lacks  the  usual  permea- 
bility to  air.  At  such  times,  whatever  falls  upon  the  sur- 
face is  not  liable  to  enter  the  frozen  ground.  In  its 
ordinary  condition,  very  many  bacteria  enter  the  soil  with 
the  filth,  waste  fluids,  and  water  that  are  poured  upon  it. 
Their  numbers  decrease  very  rapidly  from  the  surface  down- 
ward ;  so  that  it  is  not  common  to  find  them  very  deep 
down.  Often  we  find  that  they  do  not  exist  more  than  six 
feet  beneath  the  surface.  Hence  deep  ground-water  may 
be  considered  as  organically  one  of  the  purest  natural  waters. 

The  bacteria  of  the  soil  feed  upon  organic  matter  that  may  be 
present,  especially  when  that  is  in  the  form  of  filth  thrown  upon  the 
ground  and  allowed  to  sink  into  it.  These  minute  forms  of  organized 
life  thereby  produce  important  and  healthful  chemical  changes  in  the 
matters  that  they  feed  upon.  The  oxidative  processes  are  most  preva- 
lent, if  oxygen  is  abundantly  supplied  to  these  bacteria.  In  the 
absence  of  oxygen,  the  reductive  processes  of  beneficial  chemical 
change  are  there  predominant.  Both  bacterial  processes  can  go  on 
at  the  same  time.  The  results  of  their  activity  differ  according  to 
the  chemical  nature  of  the  organic  substances  present,  according  to 
the  varieties  of  bacteria  occurring,  and  somewhat  also  with  the  degree 
of  warmth  and  the  moisture  of  the  ground.  The  complex  organic 
compounds  which  we  class  as  filth  and  waste  thus  become  converted 


4  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

into  water,  carbonic  acid  gas,  ammonia,  nitric  acid,  and  salts  by  the 
decomposition  which  bacteria  induce,  and  to  the  accomplishment  of 
which  these  minute  micro-organisms  are  essential  (although  the  fatty- 
waste  matters  apparently  become  converted  into  glycerine  and  fat-acids 
without  the  intervention  of  bacteria). 

These  low  forms  of  microscopic  life  are  usually,  therefore, 
not  only  harmless,  but  are  even  very  valuable  aids  to  health. 
In  view  of  what  has  just  been  indicated,  they  may  justly 
be  regarded  as  natural  scavengers.  Unfortunately,  however, 
some  disease-producing  micro-organisms — although  in  gen- 
eral less  hardy  than  the  ordinary  soil  bacteria,  and  despite 
the  more  or  less  effective  ''  antagonism  "  of  these  latter — can 
thrive  in  the  soil  and  in  filth  for  a  varying  length  of  time, 
and  still  be  the  active  cause  of  disease  among  human  beings 
or  animals. 

Furthermore,  an  excess  of  filth  deposited  upon  the 
ground  may  soak  down  to  a  depth  below  the  levels  at  which 
bacteria  or  plants  thrive.  Thereby,  the  ground  may  remain 
permanently  polluted,  unless  the  filth  is  removed  by  the 
ground-water  or  other  means.  Cases  have  recently  occurred 
where,  by  soaking  down  far  off  into  limestone  rock  used 
for  water  supply,  bacteria  in  refuse  water  have  apparently 
caused  cases  of  typhoid  fever.  All  of  these  things  are  im- 
portant in  connection  with  sewage-disposal  problems.  In- 
discriminate throwing  of  household  filth  or  other  waste 
upon  the  ground  is  a  menace  to  health.  The  cleaner  the 
ground  is  kept,  the  more  healthful  is  the  site.  The  or- 
ganic destructive  processes,  above  indicated,  cause  the  per- 
centage of  oxygen,  in  the  air  that  is  present  in  the  pores  of 
the  ground,  to  be  less  than  in  the  free  atmosphere  outside. 
The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  increases  proportionately  with 
the  amount  of  organic  decomposition  that  is  taking  place. 

The  heat  of  the  summer  sun  of  dry,  barren  regions  de- 
stroys many  of  the  harmful  bacteria  that  may  chance  to  be 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground.     Light  and  pure  air  also  exert, 


DUST — ITS    DANGERS  5 

to  a  variable  extent,  a  beneficent  influence  in  this  direction. 
As  will  be  found  indicated  in  the  chapter  that  treats  of  Dis- 
infection, bacteria  differ  greatly  in  their  sensitiveness.  Of 
the  harmful  and  other  bacteria  that  are  alive  in  the  soil, 
some  rise  to  the  surface  with  the  moisture  that  is  drawn  up 
by  capillary  attraction  and  by  evaporation  from  the  upper 
layers.  Such  bacteria  as  happen  to  be  on  the  surface,  may 
{when  dry)  be  carried  far  through  the  air  with  particles 
of  dust. 

Dust  is  composed  of  finely-divided  clay  and  almost 
everything  else.  Not  only  does  it  consist  of  mineral  sub- 
stances, powdered  vegetable  matter,  animal  tissues,  and  so 
on,  but  very  harmful  substances  may  enter  as  well.  Chem- 
icals of  an  irritant  or  poisonous  nature  may  thus  be  diffused 
about.  The  waste  products  of  disease,  if  carelessly  thrown 
upon  the  ground,  or  if  proper  cleanliness  be  not  observed, 
may,  by  drying  and  pulverizing,  become  dust  that  carries 
with  it  the  causes  of  disease  and  death.  Few  if  any  intelli- 
gent physicians  doubt  that  tuberculous  "  consumption  "  is 
disseminated  in  such  a  way.  The  infectious  germs  of  the 
disease  are  very  numerously  abundant  in  most  of  the  matters 
coughed  out  of  the  lungs  of  those  in  whom  the  tuberculous 
disease  is  present.  These  matters,  drying  and  becoming 
powdered,  may,  as  rather  coarse  dust,  scattered  far  and 
near,  infect  very  susceptible  people  into  whose  lungs  many 
such  germs  of  disease  are  inhaled  with  the  dust  of  places 
frequented  by  diseased  people.  Other  diseases  can  prob- 
ably arise  by  similar  disregard  of  extreme  cleanliness. 

The  dangers  of  dust  in  streets  are  lessened  when  these 
are  well  provided  with  smooth,  impervious  pavements 
that  are  constantly  kept  clean.  When  moistened,  dust 
becomes  mud.  In  this  moist  condition  neither  it  nor  the 
bacteria  that  are  in  it  or  on  it  can  be  carried  by  the  wind. 
Filthy  mud  is  much  carried  about  by  shoes  and  in  other 
ways.     When  dry,  this  becomes  dust.     The  finest  dust  par- 


6  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

tides  remain  suspended  in  the  air.  They  do  not  contain 
bacteria  as  often  as  coarser  dust  does.  Their  presence 
is  evident  when  a  narrow  ray  of  sunlight  is  allowed  to 
enter  a  darkened  room.  The  light,  then  reflected  from 
their  surfaces,  makes  them  visible.  Fine  dust  and  smoke 
in  a  rainless  season  make  the  air  hazy,  as  seen  in  our 
"  Indian  summer."  Smoke  not  only  makes  the  air  less 
clear,  but  adds  dust  and  impurities  other  than  that. 

To  examine  the  dust  of  the  air  microscopically,  a  small  drop  of 
glycerine  put  in  the  middle  of  a  glass  slide  may  be  left  lying  or  be 
moved  for  a  given  time  against  the  air.  Then  a  cover-glass  is  laid 
upon  this,  and  it  is  ready  to  be  examined.  Solidified  flat  surfaces  of 
nutrient  agar,  gelatine,  or  other  bacterial  culture  medium,  exposed 
to  the  air  for  a  given  time,  then  covered  and  set  aside  for  de- 
velopment of  bacteria  and  moulds  that  may  have  fallen,  give  a  fair 
idea  of  the  varieties,  and  a  rough  comparative  idea  of  the  numbers. 
An  air  pump  is  required  for  the  more  elaborate  methods,  which,  how^- 
ever,  are  not  wholly  satisfactory. 

The  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  ground  tends  to 
vary  with  that  of  the  air  immediately  above  it.  Sandy  soils, 
and  those  that  are  light  or  "  limy,"  absorb  more  of  the  sun's 
heat  than  clay  or  fine  loam.  The  drier,  darker,  and  coarser 
the  soil,  the  more  does  it  heat  up  under  the  sun's  rays. 
When  ground  is  moist,  the  evaporation  of  the  moisture 
causes  the  ground  to  become  less  heated  than  would  be  the 
case  with  the  same  ground  when  dry.  Those  soils  which 
absorb  heat  most  rapidly  tend  also  in  general  to  radiate  out 
their  heat  with  proportionate  rapidity,  and  thus  they  cool  off 
very  fast  when  the  sun  has  ceased  shining  upon  them. 

At  a  distance  of  a  foot  or  more  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground  very  little  change  of  temperature  is  caused  by  the 
sun  shining  upon  the  soil.  Between  thirty  and  one  hundred 
feet  down  the  yearly  range  of  temperature  is  hardly  more 
than  two  degrees.  At  one  hundred  feet  and  a  little  beyond, 
the    temperature    tends    to    remain    unvaryingly    constant. 


FORESTS    AND    VERDURE  7 

When  mining  shafts  and  other  deep  works  penetrate  much 
beyond  one  hundred  feet,  the  temperature  gradually  rises. 
In  deep  mines  the  heat,  increasing  steadily  with  the  depth, 
proves  an  obstacle  to  very  deep  working. 

Forests  exert  a  great  influence  upon  climate.  Fluctua- 
tions of  temperature  are  lessened  by  woods.  In  them  and 
in  their  vicinity  the  air  is  somewhat  cooler  during  the  day- 
time and  warmer  at  night.  In  winter,  these  differences  are 
not  notable  except  in  evergreen  forests.  At  all  times,  trees 
give  protection  against  winds.  In  and  near  forests  more 
rain  falls  and  the  climate  is  more  temperate  than  in  similar 
unwooded  regions.  AH'  foliage  and  thickets,  as  well  as  the 
dead  wood  and  leaves  strewed  over  the  ground,  allow  the  water 
of  the  upper  layers  of  the  soil  to  remain  longer  than  when 
the  open  ground  is  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays.  The  snow 
melts  there  more  slowly  in  spring.  Forests  accordingly  lessen 
the  tendency  to  freshets  which  is  present  when  great  open 
surfaces  of  snow  melt  rapidly  in  thawing  weather.  They 
furthermore  equalize  the  flow  throughout  the  year  by  yield- 
ing up  their  moisture  only  gradually,  and  thus  they  have 
water  to  feed  the  sources  of  rivers  during  the  drier  and  hotter 
months  of  the  year.  The  air  of  forests  is  comparatively  free 
from  dust. 

Grass-covered  land  does  not  become  so  warm  from  the 
sun  as  does  land  devoid  of  vegetation.  On  the  former  the 
sun's  rays  are  intercepted  by  the  grass  and  so  do  not  reach 
the  ground,  while  the  radiation  from  the  grass  causes  con- 
siderable coolness  during  the  day-time.  The  same  free 
radiation  causes  a  rather  rapid  cooling  at  night.  Thus,  the 
evenings  are  cooler  amid  grassland  than  on  barren  ground. 
Greater  moisture  of  the  air  in  grassy  regions  is  brought  about 
by  this  radiation,  which  likewise  explains  the  greater  fre- 
quency of  dews,  mists,  and  frost  seen  in  such  localities.  In 
a  region  of  swamps,  the  moisture  of  the  air  is  still  more 
marked  than  over  grassland.     The  moisture  given  off  into 


8  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

the  air  over  a  region  of  forests  and  meadows  increases  the 
amount  of  clouds,  and  thus  shields  the  region  somewhat  from 
the  fierce  rays  of  the  summer  sun. 

The  nearer  a  place  is  to  the  equator,  the  warmer,  as  a  rule, 
is  that  place.  Yet  this  fundamental  principle  is  modified  by 
various  factors  : 

(i)  The  higher  we  rise  above  the  sea,  the  cooler  is  the 
climate.  Thus,  Mexico  City  is  in  summer  cooler 
than  New  York. 

(2)  The  country  about  it  affects  the  temperature    of   a 

given  district.  Hot  deserts  aggravate  the  heat  of 
summer,  and  cold  mountains  generally  lower  the 
temperature.  Mountains  may  make  a  place  much 
warmer  and  drier  by  cutting  off  cold  winds  and 
moisture. 

(3)  The  prevailing  winds  greatly  affect  the  climate.    This 

we  see  everywhere.  The  ''  chinook  "  is  a  notable 
instance  of  a  benign  influence  of  this  kind  in 
winter.  It  is  a  warm,  dry  wind  on  the  eastern  slopes 
of  the  great  mountains  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  United  States.  Like  some  similar  winds  else- 
where, it  occurs  when  some  influence  draws  or 
drives  a  current  of  air  over  a  high  mountain  range. 

(4)  Cultivation  of  the  soil,  the  influence  of  civilized  life 

and  industries,  as  well  as  local  and  other  factors 
have  a  slight  effect  on  climate. 

(5)  Regions  near  the  ocean  and  great  bodies  of  water 

have  the  air  moister  than  on  uplands.  This  caus-es 
more  rain  and  clouds  and  less  dust  there.  The  heat 
is  less  intense,  the  fluctuations  of  temperature  are 
not  so  great,  and  regular  winds  are  more  prevalent. 
The  neighboring  great  bodies  of  water  take  up  a 
portion  of  the  heat  and  consume  it  in  evaporating 
moisture  during  the  day,  while  at  night  they  yield 
up  this  heat.     Thus  the  temperature  fluctuations 


CLIMATIC    INFLUENCES  9 

of  the  day  and  of  the  year  are  restricted  in  an 
ocean  chmate. 
(6)  Inland  regions  have  a  larger  yearly  range  of  tempera- 
ture, the  days  being  much  warmer  than  the  nights. 
There  is  less  cloudiness  and  moisture  in  the  air  than 
is  the  case  with  the  coast  regions.    The  sun's  heat, 
therefore,  prevails  with  more  fierceness,  and  the 
ground    becomes    very    hot ;    while   for    the   same 
reasons  it  cools  off  rapidly  at  night. 
High   altitudes  have  the  air  less  dense  and  less  moist 
than  in  places  nearer  the  sea-level.     The  radiation  of  heat 
through  the  air  is  great.      So  the  air  is  relatively  cool,  yet 
under  the  long  and  warm  sunshine  the  ground  gets  compar- 
atively very  warm.     At  night  the  free  radiation  causes  both 
air  and   ground  to  cool  off  very  rapidly.     This   has  much 
influence  on  vegetation,  and  both  the  variety  and  abundance 
of  trees  are  under  natural  conditions  more  limited  on  high 
mountains   and   table-lands    than   on  less  elevated  ground. 
The  pressure  upon  the  blood-vessels   being  much  less  in  the 
rarefied  air  of  high  altitudes,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
in  most  people  this  aggravates  a  liability  to  hemorrhages  as 
well  as  a  tendency  of  the  blood  to  escape  from  the  smaller 
blood-vessels  more  readily  than  occurs  when  in  lowlands.  The 
more  practical  and  precise  importance  of  this  fact  in  connec- 
tion with  the  climatic  treatment  of  disease  and  its  effect  upon 
people  having  heart  disease  and  other  ailments  will  be  given  a 
little  further  on.     At  great  heights,  respiration  is  stimulated, 
partly  because,  perhaps,  of  the  lessened  percentage  of  oxy- 
gen in  the  air.     At  an  altitude  of  seven  thousand  feet,  the 
rarefaction  of  the  air  causes  it  to  have  only  three-fourths  as 
much  oxygen  in  a  given  volume  as  is  found  at  the  sea-level. 
Therefore    mountaineers    develop    large  chests.      It  is  im- 
portant to  notice,  also,  that  they  are,  in  general,  very  vigorous 
people. 

When  the  air  is  dry,  summer  heat  is  much  less  unhealth- 


lO  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

ful  than  when  moist.  In  tropical  lowlands,  rains  usually 
prevail  when  the  summer  is  at  its  height,  and  are  often  very- 
copious.  The  nearer  such  regions  are  to  the  equator,  and 
the  nearer  they  are  to  the  coast,  the  more  does  the  moist- 
ure of  the  air  increase.  For  a  portion  of  the  year,  winds 
are  apt  to  prevail  there  with  considerable  steadiness,  and  in 
some  places  with  great  force.  The  climate  of  each  place 
differs  somewhat,  of  course,  with  its  situation.  The  heat 
of  the  tropics  is  usually  very  oppressive.  Elevated  tropical 
regions  can  afford  very  delightful  climates. 

Owing  to  the  abundant  moisture  and  warmth  of  hot  low- 
lands, decomposition  and  various  oxidative  processes  are 
there  exceedingly  active,  and  vegetation  is  very  luxuriant. 
Insect  life,  and  the  microscopic  forms  of  plant  life  which 
are  regarded  as  the  cause  of  malaria,  are  more  abundant  and 
virulent  there  than  in  cooler  climates.  Various  diseases, 
such  as  cholera  and  yellow  fever,  are  peculiar  to  or  origi- 
nate in  the  tropics,  and  yearly  cause  many  deaths.  Typhoid 
fever  is  in  such  places  very  prevalent  ;  while  digestive 
and  diarrhoeal  disorders  in  general  are  there  especially  to 
be  dreaded  by  a  northern  race  like  our  own,  which  cannot 
so  well  maintain  perfect  nutrition  as  can  the  native  races 
of  such  tropical  regions.  Hence  we  tend  to  deteriorate  in 
every  way  under  the  enervation  and  direct  effects  of  tropi- 
cal heat. 

Acclimatization,  therefore,  in  very  hot  climates,  is  for 
the  average  natives  of  our  country  very  difficult  or  even 
impossible.  Such  energetic  labor  as  is  here  healthful  be- 
comes dangerous  there,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  getting  rid 
of  the  excess  of  body  heat  produced  by  all  physical  effort. 
If  of  pure  race,  the  offspring  of  such  immigrants  is  usually 
inferior  in  vitality,  and  the  stock  is  unprolific.  Restraints 
in  diet  and  living,  although  important,  are  not  sufficient  to 
obviate  the  influence  of  the  natural  obstacles  to  health. 
The  average  immigrant  succumbs  to  tropical  influences,  or 


HOT    CLIMATES  II 

weakens  and  degenerates  under  them,  unless  the  place  of 
residence  be  at  an  altitude  of  at  least  2,500  feet  above  the 
sea-level.  The  general  uncleanliness  and  bad  sanitation  of 
tropical  places  are  detrimental  to  the  health  of  all  residing 
there.  People  of  southern  stock  are  best  able  to  withstand 
tropical  influences.  Those  who  are  lean  and  sinewy,  with 
dry  skins,  and  who  also  have  sound  constitutions,  are  best 
fitted  for  residence  in  hot  climates. 

By  taking  proper  care,  the  great  majority  of  human  beings  can 
thrive,  for  a  while  at  least,  in  climates  quite  outside  the  extremes  of 
those  occurring  in  our  temperate  regions.  A  "polar"  climate  is  one 
where  the  average  yearly  temperature  is  below  the  freezing  point.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  the  "  tropical  "  climate  the  average  yearly  tempera- 
ture is  above  our  comfort  limit  of  77"  F.  The  world's  regions  of 
excessive  heat  are  interior  deserts,  where  the  absolute  maximum  of 
(officially  authentic)  recorded  temperatures  (in  the  shade)  is  published 
as  being  from  118°  F.  to  122'  F.  This  highest  temperature  is  reached 
in  the  month  of  June  (in  the  northern  hemisphere),  and  the  desert 
regions  of  the  southwestern  portion  of  our  country  are  shown  to  have 
a  summer  heat  about  as  high  as  any  in  the  world. 

Air  and  Its  Impurities 

The  air,  which  we  incessantly  need  for  breathing,  and 
which  is  indispensable  for  the  combustion  of  fuel  and  for 
nearly  all  organic  processes,  has  a  rather  uniform  propor- 
tion of  the  essential  vital  element,  oxygen.  The  percentage 
of  oxygen  in  air  is  about  20.9.  Even  in  manufacturing  cities 
the  percentage  does  not  sink  more  than  one-half  of  one  per 
cent,  lower  than  that.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  im- 
purities and  diminished  oxygen  of  the  air  resulting  from 
our  various  vital  and  manufacturing  processes  are  rapidly 
provided  for  by  the  constant  movements  of  the  atmosphere. 
Into  the  enormous  volume  of  the  atmosphere,  vitiated  air  is 
mingled  and  diffused,  rendering  the  air  about  us  pure  enough 
for  breathing  purposes  so  far  as  the  oxygen  is  concerned. 

The  air  breathed  out  from  the  lungs  contains  over  five 


12  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

per  cent,  less  oxygen  than  that  breathed  in.  The  amount 
of  oxygen  in  the  atmosphere  may  be  considerably  less  than 
twenty  per  cent.,  as  in  the  rarefied  atmosphere  of  an  ele- 
vated region,  and  yet  be  eminently  healthful.  Under  various 
natural  and  artificial  conditions  people  can  maintain  health 
and  yet  live  and  work  where  the  proportion  of  oxygen 
is  far  removed  from  the  normal  as  above  given.  It  can 
therefore  safely  be  asserted  that  it  is  not  owing  to  any 
deficiency  of  oxygen  in  the  air  that  our  cities  are  less 
healthful  than  the  country. 

Ozone  is  an  actively  oxidizing  form  of  oxygen.  Besides 
being  produced  artificially  in  various  ways,  it  appears  to  be 
formed  in  extensive  oxidative  processes  and  in  active  evap- 
oration of  water.  This  latter  process  would  seem  to  explain 
its  presence  in  sea  air.  Peroxide  of  hydrogen  is  formed  at 
the  same  time.  The  usual  test  for  ozone  is  to  expose  to 
the  air,  steadily  drawn  through  a  simple  box  by  means  of  an 
aspirator,  strips  of  paper  which  have  dried  upon  them  a 
mixture  of  one  part  of  iodide  of  potash  to  ten  parts  of 
potato  starch.  The  exposure  to  the  air  should  be  in  the 
shade  and  for  a  definite  time,  in  order  that  comparisons  may 
be  made  with  an  approach  to  accuracy.  The  depth  of  the 
blue  color,  resulting  from  the  action  of  the  iodine  on  the 
starch  and  induced  by  any  ozone  present,  varies  with  the 
proportion  of  the  ozone.  This  method  is  not  exact.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  all  other  methods.  The  absolute  im- 
portance of  ozone  seems,  in  the  light  of  recent  investi- 
gations, to  have  been  overestimated.  Examinations  of  the 
air  when  epidemics  were  prevailing  in  the  vicinity  have 
shown  that  the  air  then  contained  about  as  much  ozone  as 
during  times  of  greatest  health.  The  presence  of  ozone 
appears  to  be  of  value  chiefly  as  indicating  an  absence  of 
easily  oxidizable  substances  in  the  air. 

Nitrogen  makes  nearly  four-fifths  (79  per  cent.)  of  the 
volume  of  the  air.     It  is  an  inert,  gaseous  element,  moder- 


COa   AS    AN    IMPURITY  I3 

ating  the  activity  of  the  oxygen  associated  with  it  in  the 
atmosphere.     It  does  not  influence  animal  life. 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  called  also  carbonic  dioxide  (CO2), 
is  present  in  pure,  free  air  to  the  extent  of  less  than  one- 
thirtieth  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  volume  of  the  air  tested. 
Dr.  C.  T.  Williams  and  others  state  that  desert  air  contains 
none  of  this  gas.  Whenever  the  proportion  of  this  gas 
reaches  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent.,  the  air  is  regarded  as 
excessively  contaminated  and  unfit  for  breathing.  This  is 
not  because  such  a  proportion,  or  even  several  times  that,  is 
necessarily  harmful  in  itself  if  breathed  for  a  brief  time.  It 
is  rather  because  other  more  harmful  and  less  easily  demon- 
strable excretory  products  are  given  off  into  the  air  at  the 
same  time  that  the  carbonic  acid  gas  is  exhaled.  Where 
the  air  has  more  than  3.5  or,  perhaps,  4  parts  of  this  carbonic 
acid  gas  in  10,000  parts  of  air,  it  is  considered  as  below  the 
standard  of  purity.  Yet,  as  will  be  told  later,  very  many 
public  and  private  buildings  are  allowed  to  have  more  than 
three  times  as  much  as  this  percentage  of  the  gas  in  the  air 
of  their  ill-ventilated  rooms.  Whenever  the  proportion  of 
carbonic  acid  gas  exceeds  i  part  in  1,000  volumes  of  air, 
the  air  may  be  considered  as  unquestionably  needing  purifi- 
cation. 

This  ever-present  constituent  of  the  ordinary  air  comes 
not  only  from  the  lungs  of  all  breathing  creatures,  but  it  re- 
sults from  all  combustions  and  decompositions  as  well.  As 
already  indicated,  a  varying  amount  is  present  in  the  soil 
and  is  increased  by  the  action  of  oxidative  bacteria  there. 
Growing  plants  consume  some  carbonic  acid  gas  during 
the  day  time  ;  at  night  they  exhale  this.  An  average  adult 
gives  off  into  the  air  between  1,050  and  1,350  cubic  inches 
(or,  say,  three-fourths  of  a  cubic  foot)  of  this  gas  in  an  hour. 
Parkes  set  the  amount  at  six-tenths  of  a  cubic  foot.  The 
proportion  varies  according  to  the  individual  and  the  state 
of  health,  of  activity,  and  of  nutrition.     It  increases  very 


14  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

much  with  exercise.  The  total  yearly  amount  coming  from 
all  the  human  beings  on  the  earth  is  estimated  as  being  less 
than  half  as  much  as  results  from  the  total  combustion  of 
fuels  and  of  light-producing  substances  and  in  various  pro- 
cesses. Yet  the  entire  enormous  quantity  becomes  so  dif- 
fused off  by  air  currents,  that  the  normal  proportion,  above 
given,  of  this  gas  in  the  atmosphere  is  maintained. 

Since  this  is  adopted  as  a  standard  by  which  to  measure 
impurities  of  the  air,  and  with  which,  in  its  fluctuations, 
other  more  or  less  subtle  impurities  also  fluctuate,  their 
proportions  increasing  with  the  increase  in  the  amount  of 
carbonic  acid  gas,  the  percentage  of  this  present  in  the  air 
frequently  has  to  be  determined  with  accuracy.  For  this 
purpose,  Pettenkofer's  method  is  probably  the  best.  To 
describe  all  the  necessary  details  in  full  would  require  a 
number  of  pages,  for  it  is  a  long  and  complex  process  that 
calls  for  the  skill  and  facilities  of  a  trained  chemist. 

This  test  is  based  on  the  fact  that  when,  with  a  given  amount  of  air 
in  a  bottle,  we  shake  up  a  solution  of  barium  hydrate,  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  of  the  air  unites  with  a  portion  of  this  barium  hydrate  and  forms 
water  and  the  insoluble  carbonate  of  barium.  The  difference  between 
the  amount  of  barium  hydrate  present  in  the  solution  beforehand,  and 
that  which  remains  after  agitating  well  and  long  with  the  air  to  be 
tested,  indicates  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas  present  in  the  volume 
of  air  taken.  A  standard  solution  of  oxalic  acid  is  employed  for  deter- 
mining the  amount  of  the  barium  hydrate  used.  The  indications  of  the 
barometer  and  the  thermometer  must  be  considered  in  the  calculation 
and  are  to  be  recorded  at  the  time  that  the  air  is  collected  for  the  test. 

A  bottle  that  is  clean  and  dry  and  of  exactly  known  size  {e.g.,  one 
holding  between  two  and  five  quarts)  is  used  for  receiving  the  air. 
This  may  be  introduced  into  the  bottle  by  means  of  a  clean  air-drawing 
appliance,  such  as  a  bellows  or  a  double  rubber  bulb,  connected  with  a 
tube  drawing  out  the  air  from  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  and  thus  com- 
pletely displacing  the  original  air  in  the  bottle  by  the  room  air  which  is 
to  be  tested.  When  the  bottle  has  probably  had  the  air  in  it  changed 
several  times,  it  is  covered  with  a  clean  rubber  cap.  Then  it  is  trans- 
ported to  a  laboratory  for  the  addition  of  the  barium  hydrate  solution. 


CO.    AND    OTHER    IMPURITIES  15 

Of  the  various  less  accurate  but  easier  processes  used  for  determining 
the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas  present  in  a  given  air,  one  of  Wolpcrfs 
deserves  notice.  It  employs  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  to  which 
is  added  a  very  small  amount  of  phenolphtalein,  a  substance  very  sensi- 
tive to  the  presence  of  alkalies.  These  cause  this  phenolphtalein  in  solu- 
tion to  become  red.  When  the  air  is  shaken  up  with  the  solution,  part 
of  the  carbonate  of  soda  becomes  bicarbonate  of  soda  owing  to  the  pres- 
ence of  the  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  thereby  lessened  alkalinity  causes 
the  red  color  to  disappear.  By  reading  the  scale  and  following  the 
directions  that  go  with  the  apparatus,  an  approximate  idea  can  be 
obtained  of  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas  present  in  the  volume  of 
air  required  to  convert  the  soda  salt.  The  author  is  informed  by  R.  R. 
Wade,  chief  of  the  Massachusetts  District  Police,  that  this  Wolpert  test 
may  at  times  err  to  the  extent  of  3.4  parts  in  io,(X)o.  This  test  calls 
for  a  certain  degree  of  skill.  Its  convenience  recommends  it.  It  is 
accurate  enough  for  the  detection  of  a  great  excess  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
in  the  air. 

Water,  as  will  be  explained  below,  is  present  (as  vapor) 
in  the  atmospheric  air.  Analysis  shows  also  traces  of 
ammonia,  sulphurous  acid,  and  sulphuric  acid.  The  lat- 
ter is  quite  constantly  found  in  the  smoky  air  of  manufac- 
turing cities  that  are  situated  in  valleys,  and  which  consume 
coal  that  contains  more  than  one  per  cent,  of  sulphur. 

Various  metallic  poisons  may  occur  in  the  air  near 
certain  industries.  When  numerous  smelters,  ore  roasters, 
and  reducing  works  are  in  active  operation,  the  air  is  not  only 
irritant  by  reason  of  sulphurous  and  other  unhealthful  gases, 
but  chemists  can  then  detect  arsenic,  antimony,  and  other 
most  undesirable  substances  in  the  air.  The  immediate 
neighborhood  of  such  places  cannot  be  considered  healthful. 

Sewer-gas  is  probably  not,  as  a  rule,  so  dangerous  to  the 
health  as  it  has  been  represented.  Occasional  leakages  of 
illuminating  gas  into  sewers  constitute  a  serious  danger,  and 
this,  as  also  sewer-gas,  will  be  further  spoken  of  in  other 
chapters.  The  gases  present  in  sewers  are  chiefly  important 
as  indicating  that  bacteria  are  present,  causing  decompo- 
sition processes.     Such  a  condition  calls  for  more  careful 


l6  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

attention  to  cleanliness.  Harmful  bacteria — such  as,  for 
instance,  those  that  cause  diphtheria — may  be  present  in 
sewers.  These,  if  not  held  down  and  washed  away,  or 
otherwise  destroyed,  are  much  more  to  be  dreaded  than  any 
odorous  gas  that  is  properly  called  sewer-gas.  The  odorous 
fat-acids  and  various  organic  gases,  which  are  so  unpleasant 
in  localities  given  over  to  ''  rendering  establishments  "  and 
some  other  industries,  are  much  more  evident  to  the  sense 
of  smell  than  in  themselves  demonstrably  harmful.  The 
aesthetic  sense  is,  however,  offended  by  these,  and  should 
be  respected.  Since  bad  odors  commonly  indicate  that 
organic  matter  is  decomposing,  their  source  should  always 
be  carefully  investigated.  If  it  prove  a  probable  nursery 
for  harmful  microorganisms,  it  should  be  removed. 

The  air  exhaled  from  the  lungs  may  contain  organic  poisons.  The 
latest  statements  of  Brown-Sequard  relative  to  this  important  question 
have,  at  the  most,  received  only  partial  confirmation.  Some  contradict 
him.  At  any  rate,  it  is  wise  to  shun  as  harmful  all  filth  from  diseased 
persons,  especially  if  it  be  in  the  form  of  dried  dust  and  dried  matters 
coughed  up  from  the  lungs.  Careful  experimenters  have  recently 
shown  that  bacteria  like  those  that  cause  the  disease  can,  in  typhoid 
fever  cases,  be  exhaled  in  very  small  numbers  with  the  breath  from  the 
parched  mouths  of  patients.  This  has  not  been  generally  accepted  as 
proven.  At  the  worst  it  seems  only  a  minor  danger.  The  point  to  be 
taught  is  that  extreme  personal  cleanliness  is  in  general  an  important 
safeguard,  and  that  the  unclean,  whether  diseased  or  apparently  well, 
are  not  to  be  regarded  as  desirable  neighbors. 

Moisture  in  atmospheric  air. — A  considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  water  precipitated  upon  the  earth's  surface 
as  rain  evaporates  very  speedily  and  is  diffused  throughout 
the  air.  Much  more  moisture  is  taken  up  into  the  air  from 
the  surface  of  the  ocean,  and  from  the  top  of  the  apparently 
dry  ground,  to  which  moisture  rises  from  the  wet  layers  of 
the  soil  beneath.  The  amount  of  moisture  held  by  the  air 
varies  greatly  according  to  time,  season,  and  place.  A  cer- 
tain degree  of  warmth   is   necessary  to  the  taking  up  of 


MOISTURE    OF    THE    AIR  17 

moisture  by  the  air.  The  colder  the  air,  the  less  watery 
vapor  can  it  hold.  The  air  outside  our  windows  on  a  cold 
day  is  much  drier  than  the  warmed  air  within,  provided  that 
the  latter  has  found  moisture  to  take  up,  as  will  be  explained 
in  the  chapter  on  Heating. 

The  moisture  of  the  air  being  one  of  the  most  important 
elements  of  a  climate,  it  is  important  to  explain  the  meaning 
of  a  few  indispensable  terms  used  to  indicate  the  amount. 
When  no  more  moisture  can  be  absorbed  by  the  air,  the  air 
is  said  to  be  saturated.  The  air  is  never  completely  satu- 
rated. The  absolute  humidity  is  the  amount  of  vaporized 
moisture  (in  grains)  present  in  a  given  volume  (cubic  feet) 
of  air.  Some  observers  measure  this  by  the  number  of 
grammes  of  water-vapor  present  in  a  cubic  metre  of  air. 
The  percentage  of  relative  humidity  indicates  the  proportion 
of  watery  vapor  which  the  air  actually  contains  at  a  given 
temperature,  as  compared  with  the  highest  possible  amount 
that  it  could  contain  at  the  same  temperature.  By  the 
dew-point  of  air  containing  a  given  amount  of  watery  vapor 
is  meant  the  exact  (lower)  temperature  at  which  that  air 
cannot  hold  any  more  moisture  in  the  form  of  vapor,  but 
must  deposit  it  as  dew,  cloud,  rain,  etc. 

The  most  absolutely  accurate  method  of  ascertaining  the 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  air  is  a  careful  chemical  test. 
There  are  other  means  that  are  accurate  enough.  By  ob- 
serving the  temperature  at  which  dew  is  deposited,  we  can, 
by  the  use  of  proper  tables,  determine  the  amount  of  moist- 
ure in  the  air  and  the  relative  humidity.  The  easiest  but 
least  accurate  way  of  reaching  the  same  result  directly 
is  to  use  a  hair  hygrometer.  This  consists  of  an  open  brass 
framework  and  dial,  over  which  an  indicator  is  moved  by 
reason  of  its  being  attached  to  a  pulley  around  which  is  a 
long  hair  (cleaned  by  long  soaking  in  ether).  At  its  upper 
end  the  hair  is  attached  to  the  brass  framework.  This  hair 
is  kept  straight  by  a  small  weight  (ten  grains  or  so)  sus- 


l8  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

pended  from  it.  The  hair  shortens  and  lengthens  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air.  Thereby  the 
attached  indicator  is  moved  over  the  graduated  arc  of  the 
dial.  Hair  hygrometers,  although  somewhat  inaccurate  and 
variable,  are  regarded  by  many  as  being  fairly  reliable  if 
carefully  tested  and  compared  at  least  twice  a  year  with  a 
good  psychroi7ieter. 

Psychrometers  are  generally  used  to  ascertain  the 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  air.  This  most  accurate  and 
simple  instrument  consists  of  two  sensitive  thermometers 
fastened  side  by  side  an  inch  or  more  apart,  the  bulbs 
being  freely  exposed  to  the  air.  These  two  should  be  iden- 
tical in  every  respect,  except  that  a  single  thickness  of  clean 
washed  muslin  is  on  the  bulb  of  one  of  these  thermome- 
ters, and  is  kept  moistened 
with  distilled  or  other  very 
clean  water  during  the 
test.  The  evaporation  of 
the  water  from  this  mus- 
lin cover  cools  the  bulb 
slightly  and  causes  this 
thermometer  to  register  a 
somewhat  lower  tempera- 
ture than  is  indicated  on 
the  one  with  the  dry  bulb. 
The  drier  the  air  around  it,  the  lower  does  the  mercury  in 
the  wet-bulb  thermometer  sink  beyond  that  of  the  dry  ther- 
mometer. The  best  way  is,  when  in  the  shade  and  facing 
the  wind,  to  sling  this  around  at  a  uniform  rate  by  means 
of  a  cord  or  other  arrangement.  The  knack  of  using  this 
is  easily  acquired.  Fig.  i  shows  a  more  elaborate  arrange- 
ment for  having  the  wet-  and  dry-bulb  thermometers  ex- 
posed evenly  to  the  air. 

The  usual  psychrometer,  having  two  parallel  thermome- 
ters on  a  piece  of  wood,  answers  equally  well. 


MOISTURE    OF    THE    AIR  I9 

To  interpret  the  results,  a  long  series  of  tables  is  employed, 
and  can  be  obtained  of  most  instrument-makers.  They  can 
also  be  found  on  pages  8 1  to  91  of  the  '' Instructions  for 
Voluntary  Observers,"  issued  by  the  United  States  Weather 
Bureau  in  1892,  which  book  also  gives  more  elaborate  in- 
structions in  regard  to  meteorological  instruments  and  their 
use.  Tables  also  for  determining  the  temperature  of  the 
dew-point  are  there  given. 

A  climate  having  a  very  high  relative  humidity 
is  not  in  general  desirable  for  either  well  people  or  invalids. 
The  average  "  relative  humidity  "  of  our  Atlantic  States  is 
from  sixty  to  seventy-two  per  cent.  Where  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  motionless  air  is  very  great,  a  moderately  warm 
temperature  may  be  very  oppressive  if  the  relative  humidity 
be  much  above  seventy  per  cent.  This  is  because  the 
amount  of  water  that  is  vaporized  from  our  bodies,  and 
which  serves  to  diminish  our  body  heat  by  its  evaporation, 
is  very  much  lessened  when  the  moisture  in  the  air  becomes 
considerable.  When  the  air  is  warm  besides  being  very 
moist,  the  important  cooling  processes  of  radiation  and  con- 
vection from  the  skin  are  much  restricted.  The  heat  pro- 
duced by  the  vital  processes  within  the  body  becomes  at 
times  a  source  of  danger  to  health  in  the  summer  weather 
of  our  Atlantic  coast  cities;  and  in  ''muggy"  summer 
weather,  the  relative  humidity  then  being  greater  than 
seventy-five  per  cent.,  exercise  is  far  from  healthful.  The 
moisture  rather  than  the  heat  of  our  summers  in  the  eastern 
half  of  the  United  States  explains  the  much  greater  preva- 
lence of  sunstroke  there. 

A  relative  humidity  ranging  from  thirty-five  to  sixty- 
five  per  cent.,  while  the  temperature  is  about  70°  F.,  is  quite 
comfortable.  If  considerably  below  this,  as  in  our  driest 
upland  regions,  dryness  of  the  throat  and  air  passages  may 
be  experienced.  Very  moist  weather  is  apt  to  favor  the 
development  of  various  diseases. 


20  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

Precipitation  of  Moisture 

When  currents  of  air  containing  considerable  moisture 
(because  of  their  relatively  greater  warmth)  encounter  cool 
bodies  of  air,  usually  at  higher  levels,  or  go  against  cool 
mountain  sides  (especially  when  those  are  clad  with  forests), 
the  moisture  of  this  warmer  air  is  precipitated.  Yet  a  pre- 
cipitation of  rain  or  snow  thus  occurring  does  not  always 
descend  to  the  level  plains,  nor  even  to  the  lower  parts  of 
mountains.  This  is  because  the  air  of  lower  levels  is 
warmer  than  that  high  up,  and  so  can  vaporize  and  thus 
take  up  moisture  precipitated  into  it.  By  reason  of  the  cold 
air  of  high  mountains,  they  receive  much  precipitated  moist- 
ure. The  windward  sides  of  mountain  ranges  receive  much 
more  rain  than  falls  upon  the  side  that  is  away  from  the 
prevailing  winds. 

Since  the  great  ocean  currents  of  moist  air  flow  to  the 
eastward,  we  find  that  the  districts  on  the  western  (or  south- 
ern) coasts  of  our  continents  receive,  as  a  rule,  more  rain  than 
falls  elsewhere.  Thus,  the  western  parts  of  the  British  Isles 
and  Scandinavia  receive  more  than  twice  as  much  rain  as 
falls  in  the  eastern  parts  of  those  countries.  Studying  a  rain- 
map  of  the  western  part  of  our  continent,  we  see  that  the 
warm  eastward  currents  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  are  deflected 
to  the  northward,  and  cause  much  more  rain  on  the  north- 
ern portion  of  our  Pacific  coast  than  on  the  southern  part. 

In  San  Diego,  at  a  latitude  not  far  south  of  the  thirty- 
third  northern  degree,  and  very  near  the  cokst  of  the  Mexi- 
can possessions,  the  annual  rainfall  is  about  ten  inches  in 
an  average  year.  As  we  go  northward  along  the  coast  the 
amount  of  yearly  rainfall  almost  constantly  increases.  At 
San  Francisco  the  rainfall  is  about  twenty-four  inches. 
At  the  boundary  line  between  California  and  Oregon,  on  the 
coast,  more  than  seventy-one  inches  of  rain  fall  each  year. 
At  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River  the  amount  is  eighty- 
three  inches ;  and  at  the  entrance  to  Puget  Sound   (Cape 


RAINFALL    IN    UNITED    STATES  21 

Flattery),  ninety-four  inches.  At  Neah  Bay,  in  the  State  of 
Washington,  more  than  one  hundred  inches  fall  in  a  year. 
Along  the  coast  of  Alaska,  the  rainfall  is  so  excessive  that 
the  climate  there  resembles  that  of  the  wettest  (western) 
portions  of  the  British  Isles  and  Norway.  Yet  the  southern 
coasts  of  British  India  and  adjoining  districts  have  a  much 
greater  rainfall. 

Contrary  to  what  occurs  on  our  Pacific  coast,  the  rain- 
fall in  the  Atlantic  States  increases  usually  as  one  goes 
southward,  the  heaviest  recorded  rains  for  the  eastern  coast 
having  been  in  the  Carolinas  and  further  south,  especially 
in  Louisiana.  As  will  be  repeated  in  speaking  of  water  sup- 
ply, the  annual  amount  of  rainfall  decreases  in  general  as 
one  goes  from  our  coasts  toward  the  interior.  Yet  local 
conditions  greatly  influence  the  rainfall  of  certain  places. 
Notably  do  the  high  mountain  ridges  in  the  western  part 
of  the  United  States  cut  off  the  greater  part  of  the  moisture 
brought  to  our  Pacific  coast.  Accordingly,  the  regions  for 
a  thousand  miles  to  the  eastward  of  the  one  hundred  and 
twentieth  meridian  (of  longitude  west  of  Greenwich)  have 
usually  less  than  twenty  inches  of  rainfall  in  a  year.  Parts 
of  Montana,  and  a  few  other  fortunate  localities,  especially 
the  region  in  the  southern  half  of  Utah,  directly  south  of 
the  Great  Salt  Lake,  may  have  even  more  than  thirty-five 
inches  of  rainfall  in  a  year. 

From  the  northern  part  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  let  a  line  be  drawn, 
on  a  map,  toward  the  west — or,  better,  south  of  west — until  the  one  hun- 
dred and  twentieth  meridian  is  reached,  and  then  let  the  pencil  be 
drawn  to  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  California,  but  with  the  line  curving 
slightly  westward,  so  as  to  include  half  of  that  part  of  California  that 
is  south  of  the  latitude  of  San  Francisco.  Another  line  drawn  south- 
ward along  the  one  hundred  and  thirteenth  meridian,  from  the  lake  to 
the  Gulf  of  California,  produces  a  triangular  sort  of  figure,  which  in- 
cludes the  most  desert  parts  of  our  country.  There  are  occasional 
oases  in  this  arid  region  ;  but  in  many  portions  less  than  two  inches 
of  rainfall  occur  in  a  year,  and  in  some  parts  the  records  show  no  min- 


22 


SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 


fall  whatsoever.  This  region  remains  a  desert,  however,  chiefly  because 
of  the  absence  of  water.  Fine  yields  of  alfalfa,  the  cereals,  and  various 
other  crops  can  be  raised  with  profit  on  such  soils  by  the  aid  of  irri- 
gation. Even  "alkali  lands"  can  be  made  to  yield  abundant  harvests 
by  this  means,  if  at  the  same  time  underdrainage  be  employed. 

While  places  in  southern  California  are  much  drier  than  those  on  the 
exposed  coast  of  our  Northern  Pacific  States,  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  local  conditions,  as  before  remarked,  greatly  influence  the  rainfall 
and  other  climatic  conditions  of  any  given  locality  there.  The  moun- 
tains, rising  to  the  height  of  several  thousand  feet  above  Puget  Sound, 
and  which  lie  between  it  and  the  ocean,  intercept  much  of  the  moisture 
brought  to  the  coast  by  the  warm,  moist  Japanese  current.  Hence 
the  cities  upon  Puget  Sound  get  less  rain  than  falls  upon  the  sea-coast. 

Yearly  Fall  of  Rain   (and  Snow) 

(Measured  in  inches.      Ten  inches  of  snow  =  one  inch  of  rain) 
Average  of  Many    Years 


Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

April. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sep. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Halifax.... 

.S.63 

4-94 

5-48 

4.16 

4-7.S 

2.66 

4.07 

4.20 

3.60 

5-40 

5-50 

5-37 

Montreal. . . 

3-71 

3.08 

3-4b 

2.27 

2.87 

3.35 

4-13 

3-30. 

3-19 

3-3« 

3-72 

3-73 

Boston 

4-30 

3.fo 

4-30 

3-70 

3-4° 

3-40 

3-50 

4.30 

3.00 

4-3° 

4.60 

3-50 

N.  Y.  City.. 

4.00 

3-9° 

4.10 

3-40 

3.00 

3-30 

4-50 

4.80 

3.80 

3-50 

3-to 

3-30 

Chicago.  . . . 
Jackson- 
ville, Fla. 

2.20 

2.30 

2.50 

3.10 

3.t.o 

3.00 

3-70 

3-5° 

2.80 

3.20 

2.70 

2.20 

3.10 

2.40 

350 

2.90 

4.20 

6.10 

6.10 

6.60 

8.10 

5-70 

2.60 

3.00 

Galveston.  . 

4.10 

3.00 

3.10 

3.00 

4.10 

4.Q0 

3.00 

5-40 

7.10 

4.80 

4.70 

4.40 

San  Antonio 

1.61 

2.42 

2.14 

2.67 

3.02 

3-23 

2-.37 

3-40 

4.06 

2.01 

2-55 

1.97 

Denver 

0.70 

0.50 

1.00 

2.10 

2.70 

1.40 

I. SO 

I.  so 

0.90 

0.80 

0.80 

0.70 

Victoria, 

B.C. 

6.12 

5-" 

3.64 

1. 61 

113 

0.91 

0.88 

0.7s 

1.40 

3-35 

3.8s 

S.s6 

Olympia, 

Wash. 

8.30 

7.10 

5.00 

3-4° 

2.30 

1.60 

0.70 

0.70 

2.80 

4-50 

6.50 

9-50 

San  Fran- 

cisco. 

4-So 

3.K0 

3.10 

2.10 

0.60 

0.20 

0.20 

1.20 

2.50 

5.00 

Los 

Angeles. 

4.08 

3-74 

2.27 

1.29 

0.31 

0.09 

0.02 

O.IO 

0.04 

0.82 

1.71 

3.«4 

San  Diego.. 

1.60 

2.10 

I.OO 

I.OO 

0.30 

O.IO 

O.TO 

O.IO 

O.IO 

0.30 

I.OO 

2.10 

City  of 

Mexico. 

0.19 

0.25 

0.44 

0.66 

2.13 

4.20 

4-32 

5.20 

4-3^ 

1.83 

0.52 

0.18 

Yearly 
Total. 


55-76 
40.19 
46.10 
45.20 
35-00 

55-30 
51.00 
31-45 
14.50 

34-31 

51.40 

23.60 

18.31 
9.80 

24.23 


The  figures  of  the  above  table  show  the  marked  rainfall 
differences  between  various  parts  of  our  continent.  On  the 
Pacific  coast  little  or  no  rain  falls  during  midsummer,  while 
the  winter  and  early  spring  are  there  very  rainy.  In  the 
eastern  half  of   the  continent  much  rain  falls   during   the 


RAINFALL    AND    MOISTURE  23 

warmer  months.  The  season  of  greatest  rainfall  varies 
there  with  the  region.  Compared  with  the  rest  of  the 
world,  our  country  shows  a  very  high  average  of  fine  climatic 
conditions,  and  this  is  especially  marked  as  regards  the 
equable  and  abundant  distribution  of  rain  over  the  eastern 
half. 

The  rainfall  is  measured  by  being  received  into  a  funnel  sunk  two 
inches  in  a  cylinder  that  is  two  feet  deep,  and  that  has  a  diameter  (at 
the  top,  at  least,  if  the  bottom  be  a  narrower  cylinder)  of  exactly 
eight  inches  on  the  inside.  The  funnel  allows  the  rain  to  enter  through 
a  small  opening  (to  prevent  evaporation)  into  a  cylindrical  receiver 
which  is  exactly  twenty  inches  deep,  and  2.53  inches  in  diameter. 

Thereby  the  water  received  has  one-tenth  the  area  of  the  funnel-top, 
and  this  facilitates  exact  measurement.  Outside  of  this  cylinder  is  an 
overflow  attachment  which  can  be  used  for  melting  and  measuring  snow. 
Snow  also  can  be  measured  by  selecting  a  level,  open  space,  without 
drifts,  and  noting  the  depth  by  passing  a  stick  in  several  different 
places  through  the  freshly  fallen  snow.  It  is  usual  to  count  ten  inches 
of  such  snow  as  the  equivalent  of  one  inch  of  rain. 

An  excellent  sunshine  recorder  is  made  by  Mr.  J.  P.  Friez,  107  East 
German  Street,  Baltimore,  and  costs  twenty-five  dollars.  "  Light  re- 
corders "  are  not  to  be  recommended. 

High  relative  humidity  (exceeding  seventy  per  cent.) 
adds  to  the  discomfort  and  unhealthfulness  of  rainy  weather. 
Other  forms  of  moisture  than  rain  can  lessen  the  desirability 
of  a  locality.  Rain  followed  by  bright,  clear  weather  is  very 
agreeable.  Thus,  one  of  the  attractions  of  the  City  of 
Mexico  in  summer  is  the  late  afternoon  rainfall  preceded 
and  followed  by  clear  weather.  The  unhealthful  dust,  so 
objectionable  in  some  of  the  places  in  the  western  United 
States  selected  as  invalid  resorts,  is  thus  laid  or  washed  away 
by  this  rain. 

Fogs  are  a  more  unhealthful  form  of  moisture  than  rain. 
They  are  very  prevalent  along  the  northern  parts  of  the  Pacific 
coast  in  winter.  On  our  Atlantic  coast,  the  tendency  to  fog 
increases  as  one  goes  from  New  Jersey  to  Newfoundland. 


24 


SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 


Cloudiness  Expressed  in  Percentages 

Average  from  Records  of  Many    Years 


JAK.       FEB.     MAR       APR       MAY     JUHE      JULY       AUC      SEPr       OCT      NOV    0£C| 

80 

OEYMP/A— 

fWASHJ 

7S 

70 

N(}W  SCOT/A, 

is 

QUEBEC- 
60 

SS 

'  TTCDUIS. 

SO 
JACKSdNVlUE 

^5 

SACRAMENTO 
^0 

3J 

SANTA  FE. 
LOS  ANQELES 

CITY  OF  MEXICO 

20 

IS 
IC 

S 
0 

\ 

y 

\ 

X 

V 

^ 

s^ 

\ 

\ 

III 

N. 

>d 

X; 

K 

\y 

ft  1 

-^^ — 

** 

\ 

v, 

^ 

h 

/ 

^ 

X 

'--. 

'* 

T. 

\ 

( 

N 

/ 

/" 

M| 

"Z^ 

^ 

-^ 

\^ 

/ 

/  ^ 

/ 

^ 

/  1 

\ 

\ 

--;' 

>^. 

J2 

1 

V 

\ 

1 

« 

-^ 

\ 

-y 

/ 

A 

N 

■\ 

1 
« 

/ 

\ 

V 

\ 

/ 

// 

y 

"// 

\ 

\ 

V 

/ 

V 

y- 

/ 

^ 

\ 

c 

\ 

/ 

/ 

\ 

J 

/ 

"-N 

N 

J 

V 

1/ 

/ 

V, 

\ 

/ 

^ 

Fig.  2. 

Extreme  cloudiness  makes  a  locality  undesirable,  espe- 
cially for  the  residence  of  invalids.  The  eastern  half  of  the 
United  States  has  less  of  cloud  percentage  (55  percent.)  than 
is  set  down  as  the  average  for  the  remainder  of  the  earth. 
The  western  half  of  this  country  averages  considerably  less 
cloud  than  the  eastern  half.    From  the  above  chart  (Fig.  2)  an 


THERMOMETERS  25 

idea  can  be  got  of  the  much  greater  prevalence  of  cloudiness 
in  some  places  than  in  others,  and  of  the  average  fluctuation 
from  month  to  month.  As  indicated  there,  the  northwestern 
portions  of  our  country  are  the  cloudiest.  From  Oregon  to 
Oonalaska  the  percentage  gradually  increases,  and  at  the 
latter  place  an  entire  month  may  pass  without  much  more 
than  two  per  cent,  of  clear  sky  being  seen.  August  with  us 
usually  has  less  cloudiness  than  other  months.  Of  the  re- 
gions in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States,  the  places  on 
the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Ontario  have  the  largest  per- 
centages of  cloudiness. 


Fig. 


Temperatures  are  measured  by  means  of  thermometers. 
Those  having  mercury  in  the  bulb  and  capillary  tube  are 
best ;  for  mercury  expands  evenly  at  aft  temperatures  that 
we  usually  encounter.  As  this  substance  congeals  at  39° 
below  zero,  spirit-thermometers  are  used  for  measuring 
extreme  cold.  A  thermometer  can  be  tested  by  putting  it 
with  a  standard  one,  and  reading  the  register  while  both 
are  exposed  together  to  the  same  temperatures,  away  from 
currents  of  air.  For  testing  at  the  freezing  temperature, 
crushed  ice  in  a  funnel  is  used.  Thermometers  should  also 
at  least  be  compared  in  boiling  water  and  steam  (at  sea- 
level,  or  with  corrections  therefor).  Several  intermediate 
temperatures  of  water  in  a  vessel  should  be  tried.  "  Maxi- 
mal and  minimal  "  thermometers  are  useful  for  registering 
the  highest  and  lowest  temperatures  reached.  The  accurate 
position  of  these  is  shown  by  Fig.  3. 


26 


SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 


Automatic  recording  thermographs  serve  to  register  the  temperature 
fluctuations  by  means  of  a  pen  which  traces  a  continuous  line  on  a 
chart  that  is  moved  by  clockwork.  Such  instruments,  made  after 
Dr.  Draper's  pattern,  can  be  had  for  from  fifteen  to  thirty  dollars.  For 
out-of-doors  use,  thermometers  should  preferably  be  on  the  north  side  of 
a  building,  and  placed  more  than  a  foot  away  from  any  wall.  They 
should  be  at  least  twelve  feet  above  the  ground,  besides  being  shielded 
from  the  wind.  The  intensity  of  the  sun's  heat  is  measured  by  expos- 
ing to  the  sun  a  thermometer  that  has  the  bulb  coated  with  soot,  to  lessen 
reflection  and  loss  of  heat  from  the  usual  shining  surface.  "  Solar 
radiation  thermometers  "  are  neither  reliable  nor  important. 

The  mean  daily  temperature  is  got  by  adding  the 
highest  temperature  of  the  day  to  the  lowest  temperature  of 
the  same  day,  and  dividing  this  product  by  two.  On  the 
average,  this  gives  a  temperature  nearly  a  degree  too  high. 
Adding  the  daily  averages  for  a  given  time  (month,  year, 
etc.),  and  dividing  by  the  numbers  of  days  that  we  have 
taken,  we  get  the  average  for  the  time  in  question. 


Mean  Daily  Range  of  Temperature  (Fahr.) 

Average  of  many  years 


1 

X5 

< 

is 

i 

1— . 

*— > 

bJD 

Oct. 

Nov. 

i 

Toronto 

15.2 

16.0 

14.4 

17. 1 

18..; 

19.7 

iq.4 

18.6 

17.9 

15-412.7 

12.9 

Boston 

18.0 

17.8 

16.0 

16.6 

17.9 

19.0 

17.8 

17.6 

16. Q 

17. I  16. I 

16.0 

Albany  

16.9 

16.8 

I^.O 

17-4 

18.8 

18.5 

18.0 

17.8 

17.2 

16.6  13.8 

13.7 

New  York  City 

14.0 

14.8 

14.8 

16.5 

16.6 

16.5 

16.0 

16.2 

IS.  2 

15.6  13.9 

13. 1 

Jacksonville    

16  8 

16.6 

17.4 
22.0 

21.8 

lb. 4 
21.3 

T-i    6 

15.8 
19.4 

14.9 
18.4 

13-7 
17.9 

13.8  17.1 
19.8  20.9 

17. 1 

19.4 

Augusta,  Ga 

18.4 

19.7 

19.7 

San  Antonio 

21.0 

21.8 

21.2 

21.5 

20.4 

iQ.q 

21.0 

21.4 

21  .6 

21. 1 

21.2 

21.2 

El  Paso,  Texas 

■2^.^ 

27.2 

29.2 

33-1 

33.0 

31-9 

29.0 

27.0 

26.  c« 

27.7 

26.2 

24.8 

Chicago 

i,s.,s 

IS-Q 

15-4 

15-2 

14. Q 

14.7 

13.3 

14. I 

14.0 

13-9 

13-5 

Denver 

2';.q 

24.2 

26.1 

24.5 

■^5-9 

27.4 

27.3 

20.3 

28.2 

26.8 

25.2 

24-3 

San  Francisco 

9.1 

10.4 

II. 2 

10.9 

12.2 

12.2 

II. ■; 

II. 3 

12.8 

II. 8 

10.2 

8.8 

Tatoosh  Isl'd,  Wash 

6.7 

6.9 

8.2 

8.7 

Q.2 

9.6 

10.6 

10.7 

8.S 

8.1 

6.8 

7.0 

City  of  Mexico 

24.0 

26.0 

27.0 

26.0 

24.0 

21.0 

21.0 

19.0 

17.0 

19.0 

21.0 

23.0 

The  mean  daily  range  of  temperature  is  the  difference 
between  the  highest  day  temperature  and  the  lowest  night 


TEMPERATURE    VARIABILITY 


27 


temperature  of  the  twenty-four  hours.  This  is  a  very  im- 
portant climatic  factor.  (See  table,  where  these  are  averaged 
by  months.)  If  the  highest  point  that  the  thermometer  ever 
reaches  in  a  given  locality  be  compared  with  the  lowest 
ever  reached  there,  the  difference  between  the  two  gives  the 
absolute  range  of  temperature.  It  is  not  the  rule  that  these 
two  extreme  temperatures  are  reached  in  one  year. 

In  this  country  the  absolute  range  of  temperature  is  very 
great,  notably  so  in  the  regions  north  of  the  Missouri  River, 
or  more  particularly  in  northern  Dakota  and  Montana. 
The  smallest  absolute  range  in  the  United  States  is  at  San 
Francisco.  Other  places  on  the  immediate  Pacific  coast 
have  only  a  slightly  greater  range.  There  the  freezing  point 
is  never  reached,  and  the  variability  of  the  temperature  from 
day  to  day  in  winter  is  much  less  than  is  the  case  in  places 
further  to  the  eastward.  This  equability  is  a  valuable  feat- 
ure of  the  climate  that  recommends  the  California  coast  for 
many  invalids  and  semi-invalids.  In  this  respect,  however, 
Nice  (like  some  other  places  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea) 
surpasses  all  of  our  best  climates.  As  regards  the  absence 
of  high  winds  (mistral),  snow  and  ice,  our  Pacific  coast, 
although  humid,  is  superior  to  Nice  and  the  other  Franco- 
Italian  resorts. 

As  for  the  probability  of  rain,  presumably  less  rain  occurs 
in  the  region  between  southern  California  and  San  Antonio, 
Texas,  during  the  winter  months,  than  falls  in  Nice  at  the 
same  time,  and  certainly  there  is  more  wind  in  the  latter 
place.  Florida  and  the  regions  near  it  have  more  rain  at 
that  season,  but  the  cold  there  rarely  reaches  the  freezing 
point.  The  same  is  recorded  of  Delaware.  The  greatest 
ranges  of  temperature  throughout  the  year  are  in  this 
country  observed  along  the  Missouri  River,  and  from  Lake 
Superior  westward  to  the  Missouri. 


28 


SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 


Density  of  the  Air 


Fig., 


Barometers  are  used  to  measure  the  press- 
ure or  density  of  the  atmosphere.  At  the  sea- 
level,  this  pressure  of  the  air  is  about  14.67 
pounds  upon  every  square  inch  of  surface.  This 
corresponds  to  the  pressure  of  a  column  of  water 
nearly  thirty-four  feet  high,  or  of  mercury  thirty 
inches  high.  So,  to  measure  variations  in  this 
pressure,  a  straight  tube  of  glass,  about  thirty- 
eight  inches  long,  closed  at  the  upper  end,  and 
having  an  inside  diameter  of  at  least  one-fourth 
inch  (and  preferably  more),  is  skilfully  filled 
with  mercury  so  that  a  vacuum  exists  at  the  top. 
This  is  hung  exactly  upright,  with  the  lower 
(open)  end  resting  in  a  small  vessel  of  mercury 
free  to  receive  the  pressure  of  the  air.  Around 
the  greater  part  of  the  tube  is  a  casing  of  brass. 
(See  Fig.  4.)  There  is  an  arrangement  at  the 
bottom  for  adjustment  in  all  good  instruments. 
At  the  upper  part  is  fixed  a  more  or  less  deli- 
cately marked  scale,  and  perhaps  other  aid  to 
reading  the  variation  visible  at  any  time  in  the 
exact  level  of  the  convex  summit  of  the  mer- 
cury column.  It  is  well  to  have  barometers 
standardized  by  hanging  near  accurate  ones  and 
adjusting  the  level  of  the  mercury  so  that  both 
correspond.  In  giving  readings  of  the  scale, 
the  temperature  should  also  be  given  from  a 
thermometer  which  is  on  the  middle  part  of 
the  casing.  Then  the  reading  may,  by  means 
of  easy  tables,  be  figured  as  though  made 
at  32°  F.  The  reading  is  also  reduced  to 
sea-level,  the  standard  by  which  all  are  com- 
pared. 


DENSITY    OF    THE    ATMOSPHERE  29 

Aneroid  barometers  are  less  accurate  but  more  con- 
venient. They  can  be  made  as  small  as  a  watch,  but  are 
usually  five  inches  across.  Their  interior  mechanism  is  del- 
icate. (See  Fig.  4a.)  The  essen- 
tial part  is  the  large,  flat,  air-tight 
box  {A)  in  the  bottom.  It  is  made 
of  corrugated,  thin  German  silver, 
and  the  air  must  have  been  ex- 
hausted from  it.  It  is  attached 
beneath  and  is  held  up  by  a  strong 
spring  (B)  above.     As  the  box  A  '^'  '^^' 

expands  or  contracts,  the  mechanism  causes  the  indicator 
(If)  to  move  over  the  dial.  The  dial  is  arranged  so  that 
the  indications  compare  with  the  height  of  the  mercury  in 
a  mercurial  barometer.  The  words  "rain,"  "fair,"  "very 
dry,"  etc.,  must  not  be  taken  as  an  accurate  guide  to  the 
probable  weather.  Aneroids  are  of  value  to  mariners,  be- 
cause of  portability  and  early  sensitiveness.  Mercurial 
barometers  are  less  liable  to  get  out  of  order  and  are  more 
accurate.  Aneroids  usually  err  in  registering  too  high. 
For  determining  high  altitudes,  these  are  apt  to  err  greatly, 
as  Mr.  Whymper  has  recently  shown  anew.  The  large 
self-registering  aneroid  barometers  made  by  Richard,  in 
Paris,  are  very  good  for  constant  records. 

As  we  rise  further  and  further  above  the  sea-level,  the  density  of  the 
air  lessens,  and  the  column  of  mercury  falls  in  a  geometrical  ratio  as  the 
altitude  becomes  greater.  At  a  little  under  11,500  feet,  we  find  that 
the  pressure  is  only  two-thirds  of  that  at  the  sea-level.  At  a  height  of 
a  little  more  than  16,400  feet,  the  mercury  in  the  barometer  has  fallen 
to  fifteen  inches.  The  importance  of  this  to  some  invalids  will  shortly 
be  mentioned.  The  top  of  Pike's  Peak,  in  Colorado,  has  a  barometric 
pressure  of  about  17.8  inches  and  an  altitude  of  14,134  feet. 

The  pressure  of  the  air  around  one  is  at  times  slightly  increased  be- 
yond that  usually  occurring  at  the  sea-level.  In  diving-bells  and  other 
devices  used  for  working  under  water,  it  may  be  several  times  as  great 
as  the  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure.      The  air  there  is  impure,  although 


JO  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

it  may  contain  more  than  the  ordinary  amount  of  oxygen.  Those  who 
work  in  such  air  should  be  sound  and  picked  men,  and  should  not  come 
abruptly  to  the  lessened  pressure  of  the  ordinary  air.  Otherwise  con- 
siderable danger  is  incurred.  The  great  pressure  of  the  air  in  such 
places  drives  blood  to  the  inner  organs  of  the  body,  and  the  drum  of 
the  ear  is  forced  in  if  entire,  and  if  at  the  same  time  the  natural  com- 
munication between  the  middle  ear  and  the  nose  be  obstructed. 

Weather  Probabilities 

The  barometer  is  high  when  the  upper  layers  of 
air  are  settling  down  toward  the  place  of  observation,  and 
also  when  dry  or  cold  air  is  acting  upon  it.  A  "  low  "  level 
of  the  mercury  in  the  barometer  can  come  when  the  air 
about  it  is  moist,  and  especially  when  great  bodies  of  air 
around  it  are  rising  by  reason  of  their  being  warm,  and  thus 
more  expanded  and  lighter.  As  warm  air  rises  into  cooler 
air,  its  moisture  becomes  condensed.  When  air  is  warmed, 
and  therefore  rises,  this  produces  a  slight  lessening  of  press- 
ure. The  air  rushes  in  to  equalize  this  pressure.  In  this 
way,  winds  are  caused  to  blow,  and,  other  conditions  favor- 
ing, storms  then  develop. 

Various  local  factors  complicate  the  prediction  of  weather. 
Mountains  can  intercept  much  bad  weather.  The  St.  Law- 
rence Valley,  for  instance,  lacking  such  protection,  has  very 
many  storms.  Furthermore,  most  of  the  storms  in  this 
country  tend  to  move  toward  the  northeast  part. 

In  studying  barometers,  we  should  consider  fluctuations  as  of  more 
importance  than  the  mere  level  of  the  mercury.  The  tendency  is  to 
overestimate  the  importance  of  the  observation  of  single  barometers. 
The  value  of  their  use  on  land  lies  chiefly  in  comparing  many  different 
observations  taken  at  the  same  time  over  a  large  area.  Then,  on  a 
map,  lines  are  drawn  through  the  places  where  the  barometer  readings 
(corrected  to  sea-level,  for  uniformity)  show  the  same  height  of  mercury. 
Such  lines  are  called  isobars,  and  for  every  tenth  of  an  inch  in  the 
recorded  level  of  the  barometer,  a  separate  line  is  drawn.  The  ther- 
mometer readings  are  recorded  at  the  same  time  ;  and,  on  the  map, 
places  recording  the  same  temperatures  at  the  same  given  moment,  have 


STORMS    AND    WEATHER    PREDICTIONS  31 

dotted  lines  drawn  through  them.  These  lines  are  called  isotherms. 
On  the  United  States  daily  weather  charts,  the  space  between  two  of 
these  dotted  lines  indicates  a  difference  of  ten  degrees  in  temperature. 

All  storms  are  accompanied  by  clouds.  Whether  with  or  without 
rain,  storms  progress  at  the  rate  of  from  five  to  forty-five  miles  an  hour 
along  tracks  which  are  easy  of  definite  recognition.  When  (as  is  usually 
the  case)  they  are  accompanied  by  low  barometer,  we  call  them  "cyclo- 
nic," because  the  air  nearest  the  region  of  the  earth  where  they  are 
moves  spirally  inward  to  rise  at  the  centre  and  to  spread  out  above. 
Toward  the  centre  of  these  the  barometer  is  low,  and  the  storm  centre 
is  always  where  the  pressure  is  lowest.  The  word  **  cyclone  "  does  not 
necessarily  indicate  a  severe  storm.  The  advance  of  "  high  "  areas  of 
pressure  is  very  certain  to  bring  cooler  weather,  and  often  "  cold  waves" 
and  brisk  to  high  northwest  winds,  but  not  usually  rain. 

The  above  explanations,  taken  in  connection  with  the  following  six 
paragraphs,  embodying  the  results  of  many  years'  Weather  Bureau 
observations,  aid  one  to  interpret  the  weather  map  published  daily  and 
posted  in  conspicuous  places  throughout  the  country  : 

"The  general  movement  of  storms  in  the  United  States  is  from 
West  to  east,  and  we  may  liken  them  to  a  series  of  rather  rounded 
atmospheric  waves  of  which  the  crests  are  marked  '  High/  and  oval 
troughs  or  depressions  between  are  marked  and  called  *  Low.'  These 
alternating  Highs  and  Lows,  several  hundred  miles  apart,  have  an  aver- 
age easterly  movement  of  about  six  hundred  miles  per  day. 

"  High  winds  and  rain,  or  snow  (if  it  be  cold  enough),  usually  pre- 
cede the  low  area,  often  extending  to  a  distance  of  six  hundred  miles  ;  in 
advance  of  the  low  centre,  the  winds  are  generally  southerly,  and  con- 
sequently bring  high  temperature.  When  the  centre  of  the  Low  passes 
to  the  east  of  a  place,  the  wind  at  once  shifts  to  the  north.  This 
brings  lower  temperature  and  clearing  skies,  and  in  winter  cold  waves 
or  northers.  The  temperature  on  a  given  parallel  west  of  the  Low 
may  be  reasonably  looked  for  on  the  same  parallel  to  the  east  when  the 
Low  has  passed  ;  and  frost  will  occur  along  and  north  of  an  isotherm 
of  about  40^  if  the  night  is  clear  and  there  be  but  little  wind.  Follow- 
ing the  Low  comes  an  area  of  High,  bringing  sunshiny  weather,  which 
in  its  turn  is  followed  by  another  Low. 

"  By  bearing  in  mind  a  few  general  rules  as  to  the  direction  and  rate 
of  movement  of  the  Low  and  High,  with  the  blowing  of  the  wind  from 
the  High  toward  the  Low,  coming  weather  changes  may  be  foreseen  by 
a  glance  at  the  map.  The  centres  of  Low  do  not  move  across  isotherms, 
but  follow  their  general  direction. 

"  The  cloud  and  rain  area  in  front  of  a  Low  is  about  the  size  of  the 
latter  and  oval,  with  the  west  side  touching  the  centre  of  the  Low  in 
advance  of  which  it  progresses. 

"  When  the  isotherms  run  nearly  east  and  west,  no  decided  change 
in  temperature  will  occur.     If  the  isotherms  directly  west  of  a  place 


32  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

incline  from  nortliwest  to  southeast,  the  weather  will  be  warmer  ;  if 
from  northeast  to  southwest,  it  will  be  colder.  Southerly  winds  prevail 
west  of  a  nearly  north  and  south  line  cutting  the  middle  of  a  High  ; 
also  east  of  a  like  line  cutting  the  middle  of  a  Low.  Northerly  winds 
occur  west  of  a  nearly  north  and  south  line  passing  through  the  middle 
of  a  Low,  and  also  east  of  a  similar  one  through  the  middle  of  a  High. 
"  An  absence  of  decided  waves  of  High  or  troughs  of  Low  pressure 
indicates  a  continuance  of  existing  weather  which  will  last  till  later 
maps  show  a  change,  usually  first  appearing  in  the  west." 

Winds 

On  the  Pacific  coast,  as  also  in  the  Gulf  States,  the  winds 
are  usually  from  the  water  toward  the  land.  This  is  also 
somewhat  the  case  in  the  Atlantic  States  during  the  summer. 
In  general,  however,  because  of  the  earth's  rotation  on  its 
axis,  our  winds  come  from  the  westward  rather  than  from 
the  eastward.  In  the  western  half  of  the  United  States, 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  north  and  south  winds  are 
more  common.  In  southern  California,  winds  may  come 
from  the  east  at  times.  Like  all  those  coming  over  deserts, 
such  winds  are  there  very  dry  and  hot.  In  the  eastern  half 
of  the  continent,  the  most  wind  occurs  in  early  spring ;  in 
the  western  half,  winds  usually  blow  hardest  later  in  the 
season.  In  San  Francisco  the  maximum  is  in  July.  Else- 
where, the  summer  winds  are,  as  a  rule,  much  gentler  than 
those  of  winter. 

A  wind-vane  is  more  sensitive  when  the  tail-piece  is  split  so  as  to 
form  a  slight  angle,  as  seen  in  Fig.  5.     It  should  be  at  least  ten  feet 

above  all  buildings,  trees, 
U.S.     WEATHER  SJANE  ^  ^  etc. ,  that  could  obstruct  or 

change  the  wind  in  any 
way.  When  noting  the 
direction  of  the  wind,  the 
Irue  north  should  always 
be  considered,  and  not  the  uncorrected  direction  in  which  the  magnetic 
needle  points.  The  arrows  on  the  United  States  weather  charts  point 
in  the  direction  toward  which  the  wind  is  blowing. 

For  determining  the  velocity  of  air  currents,  wind-gauges  called 
anemometers  are  used.     Like  weather-vanes,  they  must  be  well  above 


WIND    GAUGES  S3 

roofs,  etc.  By  means  of  rotating  aluminum  cups  (Fig.  6),  and  an  elec- 
trical or  other  mechanism  beneath,  a  velocity  even  as  slight  as  half  a 
mile  an  hour  can  be  recorded.  These  cups  measure  four  inches  across, 
and  the  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  axis,  on  which  the  four  cups 
•rotate,  to  the  centre  of  each  cup  is  6.72  inches,  according  to  the  United 
States  standard.  To 
have  caused  five  hun- 
dred rotations  of  the  ap- 
paratus, the  wind  must 
then  have  travelled  a 
mile.  This  arrangement 
is  apt  to  indicate  more  Fig.  6. 

miles  than  the  wind  ac- 
tually travels  in  a  given  time.     The  force  depends  on  the  velocity  and 
is  proportional  to  the  sinus  of  the  angle  at  which  the  wind  strikes  a 
surface  opposed  to  it. 

To  determine  the  pressure  on  each  square  foot  of  a  flat  surface 
exactly  facing  the  wind,  we  find  the  square  of  the  actual  number  of 
miles  which  the  wind  would  travel  in  an  hour.  This,  multiplied  by 
0.004,  gives  the  result  in  pounds  of  pressure  on  each  square  foot. 
When  there  is  only  a  very  slight  movement  of  the  air,  our  unaided 
senses  fail  to  detect  it,  and  even  smoke  rises  straight  upward.  When 
the  wind  has  a  velocity  of  thirteen  miles  an  hour  it  is  called  a  light 
breeze.  This  only  serves  to  move  the  leaves  and  small  branchlets  of 
trees.  It  is  called  a  strong  breeze  if  moving  thirty-four  miles  an  hour, 
and  this  is  able  to  move  the  large  branches  of  trees.  At  forty-eight 
miles  per  hour  it  can  render  walking  in  the  open  air  somewhat  difficult, 
and  it  is  then  called  a  fresh  gale.  A  hurricane  moves  ninety  miles  an 
hour. 

Choosing  a  Climate 

In  the  choice  of  a  suitable  climate  for  invalids,  the 
chief  disease  that  we  consider  is  tuberculous  consumption 
of  the  lungs.  As  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  so  here  in 
America  we  see  very  great  relief  and  even  permanent  cure 
result  from  a  careful  change  of  climate  and  occupation 
before  the  lung  changes  have  advanced  very  far.  Will- 
power and  a  resolution  to  fight  the  disease  are  of  value. 
Whatever  climate  be  chosen,  much  sunshine  and  a  dry  loca- 
tion are  most  important.     With  mild  warmth,  a  low  relative 


34  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

and  absolute  humidity  are  always  desirable,  although  Iceland 
and  the  western  Hebrides  and  Shetlands  are  moist  and  yet 
have  not  much  of  this  disease. 

Some  places  in  Georgia  are  not  desirable,  despite  their 
other  merits,  for  the  reason  that  the  soil  there  is  moist. 
The  absolute  humidity  at  Los  Angeles,  although  the  town  is 
inland,  is  considerably  greater  than  either  in  Boston  or  New 
York,  for  instance,  and  this  is  somewhat  against  the  preten- 
sions of  the  place  and  similarly  of  some  others.  The  coast 
places  of  southern  California,  though  at  times  of  value,  are 
in  general  not  the  most  desirable  places  of  resort  for  such 
cases.  Experienced  physicians  find  that,  contrary  to  the- 
ory, the  tendency  to  hemorrhages  is  there  greater  than  at 
considerably  higher  places  having  less  equable  climate. 
Practical  experience  shows  that  the  presence  of  malaria  in 
southern  California  is  a  positive  detriment  to  most  places 
there.  The  sumptuous  hotels  and  crowded,  tawdry  resorts 
of  that  region  are  not  the  most  favorable  places  for 
patients. 

Sunny  sea  climates,  such  as  the  better  parts  of  Flor- 
ida, are  excellent.  It  is  the  comparative  equability  that 
recommends  that  region,  and  not  its  latitude  ;  for  New 
Orleans  and  other  cities  in  the  South  show  about  as  large  a 
percentage  of  deaths  from  '' consumption  "  as  is  recorded  in 
Boston  and  other  northern  cities.  Florida  is,  in  certain  por- 
tions, too  moist  for  some  cases.  The  more  one  remains  in 
the  open  air,  and  the  more  simply  one  lives,  the  better  as 
regards*  freedom  from  this  disease.  Overcrowding  in  cities, 
and  the  indoor  life  necessitated  by  severe  climates,  are  un- 
healthful.  The  reasons  for  this  are  given  in  the  chapter  on 
infectious  diseases. 

Sea  climates  are  to  be  chosen  only  when  dry  as  well  as 
sunny,  and  in  this  respect  some  places  are  obviously  much 
better  than  others.  Orotava,  on  the  island  of  Teneriffe, 
justly  enjoys,  like  some  of  the  islands  of  Polynesia,  a  high 


CLIMATES    FOR    INVALIDS  35 

reputation  as  a  climate  resort.  Long  ocean  voyages,  where 
the  patient  can  be  comfortable,  and  especially  where  the 
ship  does  not  enter  the  hottest  tropics,  are  very  valuable 
and  may  be  the  means  of  inducing  a  complete  cure  even 
where  the  case  has  advanced  to  the  stage  of  cavity-forma- 
tion. The  interesting  and  varied  sea-trip  to  California,  by 
way  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  is  much  better  than  the  all- 
rail  route  for  those  going  from  one  side  of  North  America 
to  the  other,  provided  that  time  is  not  of  value. 

A  climate  recommended  for  the  cure  of  tuber- 
culous consumption  must  not  be  a  moist  one,  and  the 
soil  must  certainly  not  be  damp.  In  a  very  high,  dry,  and 
sunny  region  the  disease  is  of  very  rare  occurrence  among 
the  natives  ;  yet  such  people  are  quite  liable  to  perish  from 
consumption  if  they  be  removed  to  close  quarters  in  less 
favored  regions.  North  Africa  offers  places — such  as,  for 
example,  Biskra  and  Thebes  (but  not  Cairo) — where  the 
most  healthful  conditions  of  desert  climate  can  be  found. 
Not  only  lung  disorders,  but  also  chronic  rheumatic  troubles 
improve  in  dry  lowland  deserts.  Our  desert  regions  do  not 
offer  the  facilities  for  diversion  and  comfort  that  are  to  be 
had  in  northern  Africa.  Yet  a  carefully  selected  locality  in 
America  will  furnish  the  desirable  combination  of  a  very 
interesting  occupation  and  a  dry,  healthful  climate. 

In  certain  desert  regions,  especially  along  valleys,  it 
appears  that  rheumatism  is,  like  malaria,  much  more  prev- 
alent than  elsewhere.  Both  these  diseases  must  be  guarded 
against.  Where  dry  alkali  plains  are  used  for  grazing  great 
herds,  it  is  common  to  have  irritation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes of  the  eye  and  breathing  organs  result  from  the 
unpleasant  dust. 

In  the  interior  of  the  United  States,  great  altitude  has, 
as  elsewhere  over  the  world,  a  notable  influence  on  climate. 
This  has  been  explained  in  the  previous  pages.  In  the 
great  high  plains  of  the  western  half  of  our  country,  the  long 


36  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

distance  from  the  ocean  causes  a  dryness  that  mere  altitude 
does  not  produce.  Thus,  New  Mexico  and  the  regions 
lying  north  and  northwest  of  it  are  dryer  than  the  higher 
districts  of  Switzerland.  This  dryness,  the  clear  sky,  and 
pure  air  give  a  valuable  remedial  quality  to  most  of  the 
habitable  regions  lying  for  a  thousand  miles  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  although  the  fluctuations  of  the  tempera- 
ture incident  to  the  altitude  (usually  of  a  mile  or  more  above 
sea-level)  are  very  evident.  A  residence  in  the  elevated 
regions  of  the  western  half  of  the  United  States  seems  in 
general  very  desirable  for  people  who  have  slight  tuber- 
culous disease,  or  seem  liable  to  develop  it. 

Long  practical  observation  proves  the  value  of  highlands 
in  general  for  the  climatic  treatment  of  consumption.  The 
table-land  of  Mexico  must  be  included  among  the  regions 
having  a  favored  climate.  Patients  that  are  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  disease,  without  fever  ^  and  in  whom  the  progress 
of  the  lung  degeneration  is  not  active,  are  usually  most  fitted 
for  high  mountain  and  upland  residence. 

Such  tonic  climates  are  beneficial  in  cases  also  of  "  fibroid 
phthisis "  that  are  not  very  far  advanced,  and  in  such 
diseases  as  pleurisy  and  pneumonia,  that  were  originally 
acute,  yet  which  linger  along  without  the  usual  recovery. 
They  improve  on  removal  from  the  lowlands  to  an  elevated 
climate,  if  the  inflammatory  condition  has  already  sufliciently 
subsided.  Ocean  climates  are  for  these  cases  less  satis- 
factory. 

Cases  with  considerable  fever  and  wasting,  and  those 
that  do  not  respond  to  other  treatment,  should  not  be 
promised  a  cure,  or  even  relief,  through  removal  to  a  higher 
altitude.  Nor  should  cases  needing  sedative  treatment  be 
sent  to  mountains.  These,  like  the  more  rapid  cases  of 
"  scrofulous  pneumonia,"  are  better  off  in  an  ocean  climate 
if  they  are  to  leave  their  homes  at  all.  An  ocean  voyage  is 
more  suitable  for  them  than  removal  to  the  mountains  if. 


CLIMATIC    TREATMENT    OF    TUBERCULOSIS  37 

on  the  fullest  consideration  and  consultation,  any  change 
seems  advisable.  The  privations  of  the  voyage  and  the  dis- 
comforts of  stormy  weather  are  trying  to  most  cases  ;  and, 
although  valuable  for  some  invalids,  an  ocean  voyage  may 
for  others  hasten  the  fatal  ending. 

Where  the  throat  or  bowels  are  ulcerated,  a  consump- 
tive case  should  remain  at  home.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  active  and  steadily  advancing  softening  of  the  lungs. 
While  chronic  bronchial  catarrhs  are  best  off  in  sea  climates, 
a  copious  bronchial  catarrh,  considered  as  such,  is  most 
satisfactorily  treated  in  a  dry  and  elevated  region.  Such 
diseases  as  emphysema  or  bronchiectasis  should  not  be 
treated  by  sending  them  to  high  altitudes. 

The  climate  of  southern  California  does  not  appear  to  be 
suitable  in  general  for  bronchial  disorders  with  free  expec- 
toration, although  cases  of  dry,  hacking  cough  appear  to  do 
well  there.  San  Antonio,  Texas,  at  an  altitude  of  675  feet 
above  sea-level,  is  a  favorably  located  place  for  cases  that 
should  avoid  high  altitudes.  Yet  its  hotel  accommodations 
are  hardly  equal  to  those  of  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  and 
Pacific  coast  resorts. 

High  altitudes  do  not  necessarily  provoke  hemor- 
rhage from  the  lungs.  The  rarefied  air  is  there  apt  to 
cause  the  blood  to  seek  the  capillaries  of  the  skin  and  other 
body  surfaces  rather  than  those  of  the  lungs.  This  is  proven 
by  common  observation.  The  author  has  known  cases  of 
beginning  consumption,  that  had  hemorrhages  while  in 
northern  Minnesota,  at  an  altitude  of  about  1,200  feet,  yet 
showed  a  decided  improvement  on  changing  the  residence 
to  the  City  of  Mexico,  7,432  feet  above  sea-level. 

The  rarefied,  dry  air  of  high  inland  regions  seems  very 
destructive  to  the  vitality  of  the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis. 
Even  in  the  most  crowded  and  squalid  populations  of 
Mexican  uplands  and  the  elevated  tropical  Andean  cities, 
the  absence  of  the  various  tuberculous  and  "  scrofulous  " 


38  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

disorders  impresses  a  foreigner  who  visits  the  hospitals  of 
those  places.  Not  only  is  this  a  most  valuable  feature  of 
elevated  regions,  but  also  the  rarefied  air  stimulates  the 
lungs  to  increased  movement.  The  chest  is  thus  afforded 
a  sort  of  special  gymnastics,  as  it  were,  and  this  action  is 
deemed  of  considerable  curative  value.  This  is  very  bene- 
ficial for  persons  whose  lungs  and  chests  are  imperfectly 
developed,  and  for  those  having  spasmodic  asthma,  not 
accompanied  with  much  emphysema. 

All  the  cases  for  which  high  altitudes  are  suited  should 
at  least  be  capable  of  gentle  exercise  out-of-doors,  and 
should  have  some  constant  occupation  that  involves  a  consid- 
erable amount  of  open-air  exercise.  Hotel  life  is  generally 
very  undesirable,  and  those  invalids  are  best  off  who  can 
adapt  themselves  to  simple  living.  The  sleeping-rooms 
should  face  the  south,  there  should  be  facilities  for  warm- 
ing, and  at  night  fresh  air  should  not  be  excluded. 

Heart-disease  patients  having  an  organic  defect  or 
feeble  circulation  are  not  to  be  sent  to  high  altitudes.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  all  feeble  and  aged  persons  having  a 
lung  trouble  of  any  sort.  They  should  not  seek  an  upland 
residence.  Any  nervous  disease  or  neurosis  is  usually  better 
away  from  high  altitudes.  This  is  meant  to  include  irritable, 
excitable,  sleepless  cases.  An  oceanic  climate  is  generally 
preferable  for  them. 

All  general  diseases  that  are  at  all  advanced,  and 
especially  diseases  of  the  liver  and  kidneys,  render  a  resort 
to  a  region  of  high  altitude  undesirable.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  rheumatism  and  gout.  While  catarrhal  troubles 
associated  with  tuberculosis  are  not  to  be  directed  to 
elevated  regions,  an  ordinary  gastro-intestinal  catarrh  with 
chronic  diarrhoea  may  become  greatly  improved  or  even 
cured  after  a  brief  residence  in  a  cool  and  dry  mountain 
region. 


INDICATIONS    TO    VOYAGERS 


39 


Altitudes  of  Western  Routes 

As  it  is  at  times  important  to  know  how  high  levels  our  railways 
reach  in  crossing  the  continent,  it  seems  well  to  give  a  few  figures. 
Thereby  a  case  of  fatty  heart  and  great  debility,  or  any  other  case  for 
which  a  high  altitude  appears  very  undesirable  or  dangerous,  can  be 
directed  to  seek  the  best  route.  The  all-rail  route  to  the  City  of  Mexico 
is  amid  highlands  after  New  Mexico  or  southwestern  Texas  is  entered. 
In  summer  these  are  the  only  healthful  routes  to  be  taken.  Of  the  rail- 
ways, the  Mexican  Central  is  the  best,  and  does  not  have  to  go  as  high 
as  some  others.  The  route  by  way  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  oceans  is,  in  cold  weather,  a  very  pleasant  one. 
In  winter,  one  can  safely  reach  Mexico  by  water.  In  South  America, 
much  higher  levels  are  reached  by  railways  than  in  North  America. 

The  Canadian  Pacific,  like  all  but  two  of  the  transcontinental  rail- 
ways in  the  United  States,  crosses  the  great  mountain  ridges  of  the 
West  at  an  altitude  of  over  a  mile  above  sea-level.  The  Colorado  roads 
are  highest  of  all,  reaching  a  level  of  nearly  10,000  feet.  The  Union 
Pacific,  in  thirty-three  miles,  rises  (or  descends)  more  than  2,200  feet. 
Its  highest  altitude  is  8,247  feet.  The  Atchison  road  summit  is  at  a 
level  of  7,622  feet.  The  Great  Northern  and  the  Southern  Pacific  roads 
reach  an  altitude  of  nearly  a  mile  above  sea-level.  The  latter  is  5,082 
feet  high  at  a  place  in  Texas  208  miles  east  of  El  Paso.  Westward 
from  the  Rio  Grande  its  highest  level  is  4,614  feet.  It  also  descends  in 
one  place  to  a  distance  of  263  feet  below  sea-level.  This  route,  then 
(with  or  without  the  Texas  Pacific),  has  slightly  lower  altitudes  than  the 
northern  routes.  The  latter  are,  however,  much  more  agreeable  in 
summer. 

"Winter  Pleasure  Travel 

For  the  luxurious  who  seek  to  avoid  the  severity  of  the  northern 
winter,  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  lands  south  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  regions  near  the  Red  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean,  offer  very  attractive 
climates  as  well  as  the  pleasures  (and  inconveniences)  of  travel.  The 
islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans  are  very  accessible  nowa- 
days, and  Cuba  is  very  pleasant  at  a  time  when  the  Atlantic  coast  to 
the  northward  is  very  bleak. 

Absolute  humidity  is  an  important  climatic  factor  to  be  considered  in 
choosing  a  winter  residence.  Moist  places  are  not  usually  desirable. 
Mexico,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  Texas  offer  pleasanter  winter 
climates  than  the  regions  to  the  northward.  In  speaking  of  tempera- 
tures,  mention  was  made  of  the  equability  of   the   climate  at  Nice. 


4©  SOIL    AND    CLIMATE 

With  it,  San  Remo  should  be  inchided  as  a  pleasanter  resort.  North- 
ern Africa  has  a  still  more  delightful  climate.  Florida  affords  a  desira- 
ble winter  resort  ;  so  also  various  dry  places  in  Georgia  and  the  Caro- 
linas,  although  inferior  to  the  Mediterranean  coast  (especially  the 
African).  As  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  table  on  page  22,  consid- 
erable rain  falls  in  Florida,  but  more  in  summer  than  in  winter.  Mex- 
ico and  Egypt  are  very  dusty  in  the  winter,  yet  the  pure  air  and 
abundant  sunlight  there  make  the  organic  matter  of  dust  less  harmful 
than  in  the  northern  cities.  It  is  not  generally  realized  that  Mexico 
City  is  most  delightful  in  summer,  because  of  the  rain  which  then  lays 
the  dust.  Winter  resorts  often  lack  facilities  for  providing  sufficient 
artificial  heat  in  case  of  unusually  severe  weather. 

Vacations  and  Camping  Out 

For  those  who  wish  to  utilize  a  brief  vacation  so  as  to 
derive  the  fullest  advantage  from  a  health-restoring  and  re- 
creative point  of  view,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  intimate  that 
the  freer  of  conventionalities  the  life  is,  and  the  less  one  is 
fettered  by  the  dictates  of  fashionable  society,  the  better. 
Flannels  and  serviceable  light  clothes  are  desirable. 

If  camping  out,  the  site  should  be  dry  and  not  have 
water  near  the  surface.  A  location  away  from  industries  or 
residences  is  best,  and  the  use  of  many  fine  wild  sites  can 
be  had  for  the  asking.  A  rather  barren  soil  is  in  general 
preferable.  Moist  river  bottoms  and  valleys  are  not  to  be 
chosen  for  camping  grounds.  It  is  safer  to  be  in  a  boat 
upon  the  water  of  a  stream  or  lake  than  on  damp,  low 
ground  near  it.  or  near  which  marshes  lie. 

The  northern  and  inland  regions  are  dryer  than  those  fur- 
ther to  the  south  and  on  the  coast.  The  air  of  the  coast 
districts  south  of  the  Hudson  River  has  much  more  moist- 
ure than  is  found  in  Maine,  and  hence  Maine  is  preferable 
to  the  regions  south  of  it,  and  especially  to  those  further 
south  than  New  England.  The  prevailing  winds  should  be 
considered  in  selecting  a  summer  resting  place.  These 
winds  being  usually  from  the  south  and  west,  a  place  on  our 
Atlantic  coast  is  best  located  when  it  lies  to  the  northeast  of 


SUMMER    RESORTS  4I 

a  large  sheet  of  water.  The  hot  winds  are  thereby  tem- 
pered. 

North  of  Cape  Cod  the  ocean,  even  in  summer,  is  too 
cool  for  comfortable  sea-bathing,  especially  if  the  stay  in 
the  water  be  prolonged.  New  Jersey  and  the  regions  south 
and  southwest  of  it  are  apt  to  be  very  warm  in  summer. 
There,  as  also  further  to  the  north  and  east,  sandy  districts, 
such  as  Long  Island,  may  be  much  hotter  in  summer  than 
places  where  vegetation  is  growing. 

The  lower  St.  Lawrence  Valley  is  much  cooler  than  that 
part  of  Canada  near  the  great  lakes.  The  regions  near 
Lake  Superior  are  much  cooler  than  those  upon  the  other 
great  lakes,  and  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie  may  be  very  un- 
comfortable from  the  heat.  The  mountains  of  the  great 
Appalachian  chain  furnish  cool  and  beautiful  summer  re- 
sorts. The  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont,  and  the  White 
Mountains  of  New  Hampshire  are  agreeable  and  healthful 
at  an  altitude  of  even  less  than  1,500  feet.  As  one  goes  fur- 
ther to  the  southwest,  a  higher  altitude  must  be  sought  for 
comfort.  In  the  Blue  Ridge,  south  of  Pennsylvania,  places 
at  an  altitude  of  2,000  feet  may  be  very  hot  if  in  valleys. 
There,  and  further  south,  a  summer  resort  should  be  at 
least  2,500  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  not  shut  in  by 
ridges  or  peaks.  Wherever  one  goes,  it  is  important  to  see 
that  the  water  supply  is  very  free  from  chances  of  contami- 
nation. If  the  vacation  must  be  limited  to  a  few  days,  the 
later  in  the  summer  one  takes  it  the  better. 


CLOTHING   AND    PROTECTION    OF   THE 
BODY 

By  the  perfection  of  its  intricate  mechanism,  the  human 
body  is  in  health  kept  at  very  nearly  the  average  tempera- 
ture of  98.6°  F.  The  body-heat  is  always  increased  by 
muscular  activity.  An  excess  of  food  tends  also  to  raise 
somewhat  the  temperature  of  the  body.  Furthermore,  the 
amount  of  actual  heat  produced  is  increased  directly  and 
indirectly  under  the  influence  of  cold  about  us.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  heat-production  is  lessened  under  the  in- 
fluence of  surrounding  warmth  and  when  by  means  of  cloth- 
ing the  body  is  kept  warm. 

Less  than  one-fiftieth  part  of  the  heat  produced  within 
the  human  system  is  required  for  warming  the  food  and 
drink  after  they  enter  the  mouth.  Nearly  ten  times  as 
much  more  is  used  up  for  warming  the  air  that  we  take  into 
our  lungs  and  for  the  work  of  vaporizing  moisture  from 
the  large  surface  of  the  lung  tissue, — which  moisture  goes 
out  of  the  lungs  with  the  air  exhaled.  The  skin,  however, 
affords  the  chief  means  of  relieving  the  system  of  its  sur- 
plus heat.  More  than  five-sixths  of  the  heat  produced  by 
the  body  is  given  off  from  its  skin  surfaces. 

This  heat  is  given  off  from  the  skin  by  (i)  radiation,  (2)  conduction, 
(3)  evaporation  of  moisture.  All  of  these  processes  may  be  operative  at 
the  same  time.  Variations  in  their  activity  are  largely  affected  by  the 
temperature  and  density  of  the  air,  by  its  degree  of  moisture  and  its 
amount  of  movement.  The  clothing  exerts  also  a  great  influence  upon 
the  quantity  of  heat  that  escapes  through  the  skin. 

With  the  evaporation  of  a  quart  of  water  from  the  skin  the  body 
loses  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  average  surplus  heat  that  it  has  to 
give  off  in  a  day.  When  the  air  is  rarefied  and  also  when  it  is  warm, 
dry  and  in  motion,  the  daily  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  skin  is 
considerably  more  than  a  quart  in  amount.      The  quantity  of  heat  that 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS  43 

is  given  off  in  the  process  of  vaporizing  this  moisture  may  be  very 
great.  Yet  in  cold  weather  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the  skin 
does  not  count  for  much.  When  the  air  is  warm,  still  and  very  moist, 
not  very  much  heat  is  lost  by  this  process.  The  water  that  then  comes 
out  of  the  sweat-glands  remains  condensed  upon  the  skin  as  "  sweat." 
Radiation  is  proportionately  greater  from  a  small  body  than  from  a 
large  one,  and  this  process  acts  by  warming  cold  objects  with  which  we 
are  in  contact.  Much  heat  is  thereby  lost  when  we  are  near  cold  walls 
or  are  in  contact  with  cold  furniture,  cold  beds,  chilly  bed-clothing, 
etc  When  the  air  is  very  moist,  and  evaporation  is  ineffective,  radia- 
tion becomes  correspondingly  active  and  aids  the  process  of  conduction 
to  relieve  the  body  of  much  heat.  Conduction  is  operative  when  the 
air  is  actively  in  motion  and  when  it  is  either  hotter  or  colder  than  the 
skin.  In  strong,  cold  winds  and  by  the  use  of  fans,  etc.,  conduction 
causes  much  heat  to  be  lost  from  the  unprotected  skin.  Both  conduc- 
tion and  the  less  important  factor,  radiation,  are  usually  most  active 
in  proportion  to  the  coldness  of  the  air  ;  although  the  air  is  not  di- 
rectly warmed  to  any  extent  by  radiant  heat. 

In  the  most  favored  mild  climates,  these  natural  regula- 
tive processes  render  it  possible  for  human  beings  to  exist 
without  any  clothing.  In  cold  weather,  however,  clothing 
is  indispensable.  Otherwise  a  great  amount  of  heat  ia  lost. 
Loose  clothing  also  serves  somewhat  to  protect  us  from  the 
sun's  heat.  The  light-rays  of  the  sun  tend  to  be  absorbed 
and  given  off  as  heat  rays,  thus  augmenting  the  discom- 
fort of  the  body  in  warm  weather.  It  is  well  always  to 
remember  that  black  cloth,  whatever  the  material,  absorbs 
more  than  twice  as  much  heat  as  cloth  that  is  white  or  of 
a  pale  yellow.  In  summer,  these  latter  as  well  as  the  grays 
and  other  lighter  shades  of  clothing  material  are,  for  these 
reasons,  to  be  preferred  to  blue  or  black  fabrics. 

Screens  of  various  kinds  that  intercept,  or  ward  off  from 
the  body,  the  direct  and  reflected  heat  of  the  sun  are  of 
evident  utility  in  hot  weather.  Hats  worn  at  such  times 
should  be  light  in  both  weight  and  color  and  so  arranged 
as  to  allow  circulation  of  air  over  the  head.  It  may  here 
incidentally  be  stated  that  the  hard  and  close-fitting  rims 
of  the  ordinary  hats  that  men  wear  are  not  so  healthful  for 
the  scalp  as  are  the  looser  ones  and  those  which  do  not  to  any 
extent  compress  the  skin  and  the  vessels  and  nerves  beneath. 


44  CLOTHING 

For  clothing  material,  leather  (and  rubber),  wool,  silk, 
linen  and  cotton  tissues  are  most  commonly  employed.  As 
regards  the  conduction  of  heat  through  dry  clothes,  it  in 
reality  makes  comparatively  little  difference  (except  for  the 
reason  to  be  given  in  the  next  paragraph)  whether  woollen 
or  any  other  of  the  usual  fabrics  be  chosen.  When  it  is 
desired  to  prevent  loss  of  warmth,  the  main  consideration 
is  the  thickness  of  the  clothing  and  the  amount  of  air  that 
a  given  weight  of  clothing  contains  between  its  fibres  and 
layers.  The  more  loosely  a  given  weight  of  material  is 
woven  and  arranged  and  the  more  air  present  in  the  tissues, 
the  better  does  the  fabric  serve  the  purpose  of  preventing 
escape  of  warmth  from  the  body.  Motionless  air  is  a  poor 
conductor  of  heat.  Hence  extra  layers  of  clothing  (by 
adding  just  so  many  layers  of  air)  cause  more  warmth  to  be 
saved  to  the  body.  So,  too,  bed-clothing  that  is  light  and 
"  downy "  is  warmer  than  when  the  same  amount  of  ma- 
terial is  woven  into  a  covering  (of  the  same  size)  that  is 
comparatively  dense  and  thin. 

Woollen  tissues  have,  usually,  a  certain  advantage  over 
cotton  and  linen  goods  in  these  above-indicated  qualities. 
The  great  elasticity  of  wool  causes  cloth  that  is  made  of  it 
to  possess  much  lightness  and  porosity,  and  to  maintain  this 
even  when  moistened.  Yet  worn-out  and  unclean  garments, 
of  any  material,  are  hygienically  inferior  to  fresher  and 
cleaner  apparel ;  for  they  have  lost  their  original  elasticity, 
have  their  air-spaces  considerably  filled  up,  and  any  un- 
cleanliness  that  they  may  have  is  in  itself  objectionable. 

Woollen  underwear  that  has  been  washed  a  number 
of  times  (especially  if  the  washing  have  been  thorough 
and  in  very  hot  water)  shrinks  and  "  felts  up"  with 
splitting  of  the  wool  fibres.  Ordinary  flannel  is  made  of 
the  shorter  and  more  curly  wools.  The  protruding  fibres 
of  such  rough  flannel  and  other  woollen  underclothing  that 
has  been  changed  by  washing  may  be  so  irritant  to  certain 


CLOTHING   MATERIAL 


4S 


skins  as  to  prevent  some  people  from  wearing  any  woollen 
fabrics  next  to  the  skin.  "Merino "or  "part-woollen" 
underwear  then  usually  suffices.  Many  persons  find  such 
goods  preferable  to  woollen  garments.  These  articles  made 
partly  of  cotton  and  partly  of  wool  can  take  up  nearly  nine- 
tenths  as  much  water  as  the  various  kinds  of  proprietary 
"  natural  wool  "  underwear  are  capable  of  absorbing,  and 
are  much  less  costly.  "Shoddy"  goods  are  undesirable. 
Processes  of  rendering  cotton  fabrics  more  like  flannel  are 
employed  in  Germany  with  very  good  results  ;  but  they  do 
not  appear  to  have  become  known  here  to  any  extent. 

Clothes  that  fit  very  tightly  are  defective  because 
they  diminish  the  air-spaces  that  are  present  with  rather 
loose  clothing  and  which — being  valuable  non-conductors 
— serve  to  guard  the  body  against  cold.  Yet,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  winter  clothing  should  not  be  exceedingly  loose  ; 
for  such  a  condition  favors  a  rapid  loss  of  warmth  by  pro- 
moting the  very  free  circulation  of  air  within,  as  well  as  the 
entrance  of  the  chilling  blasts  of  air  from  outside.  When 
the  air  in  contact  with  the  skin  or  between  and  in  layers 
of  clothes  is  warmed,  it  tends  to  rise  and  can  be  driven  out 
completely  by  cold  air  entering  inside  of  loose  garments. 
Very  long  dresses  and  trousers  are  objectionable,  as  they 
catch  and  retain  much  unclean  dirt.  Thereby  disease 
germs  and  other  filth  may  be  carried  into  clean  houses  and 
cause  disease  to  be  increased. 

The  outside  surface  of  the  outer  garment  (if  worn 
chiefly  for  warmth)  should  be  closely  woven  and  firm  (as 
it  is  when  made  of  long  and  firm  wool),  however  "  fluffy  ", 
and  lightly  woven  the  inner  and  lining  layers  may  be. 
This  is  apart  from  any  consideration  of  the  greater  clean- 
liness of  very  smooth  surfaces.  The  lamb's-skin  coats  of 
various  pastoral  races,  who  wear  the  fleece  inside  and  the 
smooth  inner-skin  surface  on  the  outside,  are  very  sensible 
winter  garments.     Fur  garments  are  hygienically  best  when 


46  CLOTHING 

made  thus,  with  the  fur  toward  the  body.  The  leathern  or 
hard  cloth  '^  pea-jacket"  worn  by  people  exposed  to  fiercely 
cold  winds  cannot  easily  be  improved  upon.  Lined  with 
some  light  woollen  stuff,  such  as  flannel  (which  is  remarka- 
bly permeable  to  the  wind),  the  outside  (of  smooth  leather) 
offers  nearly  one  hundred  times  as  much  resistance  to  the 
wind  as  this  flannel  does. 

An  excess  of  clothing  is  to  be  avoided,  as  it  promotes 
perspiration  by  developing  a  warm  layer  of  air  next  to  the 
skin.  Any  dry  underclothing  can,  by  reason  of  its  hygro- 
scopic property,  absorb  a  small  amount  of  perspiration. 
New,  clean,  light  and  dry  wool  tissue,  such  as  flannel,  can 
take  up  considerably  more  than  its  own  weight  of  water  into 
the  air-spaces  of  the  fabric.  Cotton,  linen  and  silk  are 
inferior  in  this  respect.  This  fact  renders  woollen  under- 
garments preferable  to  those  made  of  the  other  substances, 
provided  that  the  wearer's  skin  is  not  irritated  by  wool. 
Wool  has  the  further  advantage  that  it  does  not  tend  to 
cool  the  skin  so  much  as  silk,  linen  or  cotton,  all  of  which 
become  inelastic  on  moistening,  and  also  give  off  their 
absorbed  water  more  rapidly  than  wool  does.  Thus  linen, 
and  to  a  less  degree  cotton  or  silk,  can  cause  at  times  an 
unhealthful  and  uncomfortable  cooling  of  the  skin.  In 
weather  that  is  uniformly  very  hot,  cotton  cloth  is  to  be 
preferred,  as  being  a  thinner  fabric  than  woollen  goods,  and 
also  because  cotton  is  a  better  conductor  of  heat  and 
vaporizes  water  more  rapidly. 

When  the  wearer  is  exposed  to  rain  or  moist  air,  so  that 
the  clothing  is  liable  to  become  wet  and  to  remain  so,  wool- 
len clothing  wards  off  the  danger  of  "  catching  cold  "  better 
than  garments  made  of  cotton,  linen  or  silk  fabrics.  Yet  all 
moist  clothing  (which  of  course  includes  foot-wear)  should 
be  removed  and  dry  garments  substituted  as  promptly  as 
possible.  Moist  clothes  are  chilling  when  the  air  is  cooler 
than  the  body,  because,  in  the  first  place,  they  conduct  off 


CLOTHING    FOR    WET    WEATHER  47 

heat  from  the  body  much  faster  than  when  they  are  dry. 
Secondly,  the  evaporation  of  the  water  contained  in  wet 
clothes  produces  cold.  In  these  respects,  woollen  garments 
when  wetted  are  the  least  dangerous  to  the  health. 

To  keep  rain  and  excessive  moisture  of  the  air  from  pene- 
trating into  our  clothes,  waterproof  outer  garments  are 
much  used.  If  wholly  impervious  to  moisture  and  air,  such 
waterproof  articles  not  only  keep  out  moisture  and  cold,  but 
they  also  prevent  any  of  the  perspiration  of  the  body  from 
passing  out  as  it  does  through  all  loose  and  permeable 
cloths.  So  this  body-moisture  tends  to  condense  as  water  on 
the  inside  of  the  waterproof  overgarments.  Rubber  cloth 
(which  includes  "  Mackintosh  "  fabric)  is  less  satisfactory 
than  oil-cloth  or  paraffined  cloth.  Better  than  these  are 
the  various  processes  that  allow  air  to  circulate  through 
cloth,  yet  make  the  texture  waterproof.  These  processes 
rely  upon  impregnation  of  the  cloth  with  alum  combined- 
with  soda-soaps,  both  added  separately.  Others  treat 
woollen  goods,  for  instance,  with  alum,  lead  acetate,  and 
gelatine. 

When  rubber  boots  are  worn,  loose  porous  slippers  or 
soles  should  be  inside.  These,  as  well  as  the  socks,  should 
be  removed  as  promptly  as  possible  after  the  necessary  use. 
The  inevitable  softening  of  the  feet  (in  the  ''  vapor-bath  " 
produced  in  the  rubber  boot  by  the  perspiration)  can  be 
lessened  somewhat  by  the  use  of  a  drying-powder  dusted 
upon  the  feet  before  drawing  on  the  boots.  A  powder 
made  of  one  part  of  zinc  oxide  or  talc  to  two  or  three 
parts  of  starch,  or  one  such  as  is  indicated  on  page  50,  may 
be  of  value  here.  Despite  their  obvious  defects,  india-rubber 
overshoes  prevent  many  a  "  cold."  "  Arctic  "  overshoes  are 
an  indispensable  aid  to  health  during  our  winter  weather. 
Whenever  leather  is  made  absolutely  waterproof  it  has  simi- 
lar defects  to  rubber  in  so  far  as  the  weakening  effect  upon 
the  skin  of  the  feet  is  concerned.    Enamelled  leather  has  lost 


/ 


4$  CLOTHING 

much  of  its  permeability  to  air,  and  is  therefore  not  as 
healthful  as  ordinary  unvarnished  leather.  Russet  leather 
and  canvas  are  good  for  shoes,  as  they  permit  considerable 
air  to  pass  through  their  substance. 

Persons  suffering  from  cold  feet  and  chilblains  in  winter 
find  some  relief  from  using  cloth  shoes,  and  by  changing  any 
shoes  several  times  during  the  day.  The  foot-wear  should 
also  be  allowed  to  lie  in  dry  air  and  lose  the  moisture  de- 
rived from  the  feet.  Shoes  should  be  cleaned  on  the  inside 
at  times  as  well  as  on  the  outside.  The  dirt  of  our  streets 
is  liable  to  contain  many  harmful  bacteria.  Hence  shoes 
ought  to  be  carefully  wiped  before  the  wearer,  coming  from 
the  street,  enters  a  house.  Long-legged  boots  impair  the 
ventilation  of  the  feet.  Better  are  laced  boots  and  brogans 
(fashionably  termed  "  Bluchers  ").  Very  low  shoes  are  bet- 
ter still.  In  dry,  moderate  winter  weather,  these  are  suffi- 
cient, at  least  for  men  ;  but  cloth  overgaiters  can  be  added 
for  warmth  if  desired.  The  practical  value  of  existing  de- 
vices for  ventilating  the  foot  and  shoe,  through  holes  in  the 
bottom  of  the  sole  and  in  the  back  of  the  heel,  has  not  yet 
been  demonstrated. 

Shoe-heels  should  be  broad  and  low.  The  front  edge 
of  the  heel  may  reach  a  little  further  forward  on  the  outside 
than  on  the  inside  ;  but  in  no  case  should  it  be  placed  so 
far  forward  as  to  cause  pressure  upon  the  arch  of  the  healthy 
foot.  The  toes  of  shoes,  and  of  stockings  also,  should  be 
broad.  Neither  children  nor  others  should  wear  shoes,  or 
even  moccasins,  that  are  not  "rights  and  lefts."  This  is 
because  the  inside  of  the  foot  is  very  differently  shaped  from 
the  outside.  Useful  and  healthful  shoes  should  conform  to 
the  actual  anatomy  of  the  foot.  A  disproportionately  small 
foot  is  not  beautiful. 

If  an  outline  tracing  of  a  wholly  natural  human  foot  be 
made  by  having  the  naked  foot  upon  a  sheet  of  paper  and 
then  drawing  a  pencil  around  the  outside  of  the  foot,  it  will 


PROPER    SHOES  49 

be  seen  that  the  toes  are  not  cramped  and  pressed  in  to- 
gether as  when  one  has  always  worn  ill-fitting  and  narrow- 
toed  shoes.  The  second  toe  may  be  as  long  as  the  great  toe 
or  even  longer.  The  leading  anatomical  authorities  and 
great  artists  of  all  times  have  usually  represented  it  so.  The 
great  toe  ought  to  point  straight  forward,  and  no 
very  marked  inward  projection  should  exist  on  the 
inside  edge  of  the  foot  at  the  joint  of  the  great  toe. 
If  a  line  be  drawn  from  the  middle  of  the  heel 
through  the  centre  of  the  great  toe  (Meyer's  line, 
the  dotted  line  in  Fig.  7),  this  line  is  nearly  parallel 
with  the  inside  and  front  part  of  the  healthy, 
natural  foot.     Most    practically  important  is  the  ^^ 

fact  that  this  line  corresponds  with   the    highest  *  ^' 

part  of  the  instep  and  arch  of  the  foot  (<r,  Fig.  8). 
The  highest  portion  of  the  upper-leather  of  a  shoe,  at 
the  part  where  it  covers  the  instep,  should 
therefore  be  toward  the  inside  of  the  instep 
and  well  inside  of  the  middle  line  of  the  foot. 
The  propriety  of  this  is  seen  by  considering 
Fig.  8,  which  represents  a  cross-section  of 
a  normal  foot  at  the  region  of  the  instep. 
Fig.  8.  (This  section   is  made  through    the  cuboid 

and  the  three  cuneiform  bones.  It  is  on  a  much  larger  scale 
than  Figs.  7,  9  and  10.)  Thus  it  is  clear  that  the  foot  is 
high  on  the  inside  and  much  lower  and  thinner 
on  the  outside.  The  lasts  upon  which  shoes  are 
made,  should  conform  to  all  of  these  anatomical 
features. 

Walking-shoes  should  have  broad  toes. 
Fig.  9  represents  the  sole  of  a  shoe  which  is  a 
compromise  between  the  ungainly  square-toed 
shapes  and  the  unhealthful,  pointed  styles.  It 
proves  a  serviceable  shape  for  constant  use.  If 
made  straighter  on  the  inside  and  broader  at  the  toes  and 
4 


Fig.  9. 


50  CLOTHING 

also  at  the  outside  of  the  instep,  that  would  be  a  little  better. 
In  any  case,  the  inside  should  be  quite  straight.    A  projec- 
tion on  the  side  to  accommodate  a  slight  bunion 
is  undesirable  as  tending  to  aggravate  the  evil. 
The  shoe  should  be  longer  than  the  foot  by  at 
least  half  the  breadth   of    the  great    toe.      If  a 
pointed  shoe  be  desired  to  meet  the  often-recur- 
ring demands  of  fashion,  the  shoe  must  be  longer 
and  the  point  should  (for  a  normal  foot)  be  to  the 
inside  of  the  middle  line  of  the  foot.     The  inside 
Fig.  io.        -g  therefore  rather  straight,  however  curved  the 
outside.     (See  Fig.  lo.) 

The  upper  and  outer  part  of  the  shoe  leather  should  not 
press  upon  the  little  toe  with  any  force.  Otherwise  corns 
are  produced.  This  tendency  is  lessened  and  the  shoe 
otherwise  improved  when  the  last  is  made  fairly  thick  in 
front  and  raised  somewhat  at  the  end  so  that  the  last,  in  its 
forward  part,  touches  the  ground  only  at  the  portion  corre- 
sponding to  the  ball  of  the  foot.  At  the  region  of  the  ball  of 
the  foot,  the  sole  of  the  last  should  not  curve  very  much 
from  side  to  side,  although — as  just  said — the  sole  ought  to 
curve  from  front  to  rear.  At  the  arch  of  the  foot,  it  may 
curve  ^  a  great  deal  ;  yet  the  outside  must  there  be  low. 
Walking-shoes  should  have  thick  soles  as  well  as  low  heels. 
Children  ought  to  have  their  shoes  shaped  on  the  above- 
indicated  principles.  Improper  foot-wear  is  very  bad  for 
their  feet. 

To  prevent  foot-sweat  and  bad  odors  (from  decomposing 
substances  on  the  skin  of  the  feet  and  on  the  stockings  and 
shoes),  the  feet  ought  to  be  frequently  washed  and  not  over- 
warmly  clothed.  The  stockings  need  to  be  changed  very 
often,  as  they  rapidly  take  up  much  decomposable  matter. 
For  lessening  foot-sweat,  one  may  dust  on  freely  a  powder 
made  of  one  part  of  salicylic  acid,  thirty  parts  of  alum  (or 
zinc  oxide)  and  seventy  parts  of  talc  powder.     For  soften- 


TIGHT    CT.OTHING  5I 

ing  corns  and  calluses,  alkaline  solutions  (such  as  one  part 
of  caustic  potash  to  twenty  of  water)  are  to  be  used. 

Clothing  should  not  be  tight  in  any  part.  Hard, 
tight  hat-bands,  tight  collars,  belts  or  corsets  and  constrict- 
ing garters  not  only  restrict  the  circulation  of  air  next  to 
the  skin,  but  also  more  or  less  seriously  interfere  with  free 
local  circulation  of  blood.  A  tight  collar  is  conspicuously 
bad  in  this  respect  ;  for  it  tends  to  impede  the  flow  of 
the  venous  blood.  Various  eye  and  brain  troubles  are  con- 
sidered by  experts  to  be  caused  and  aggravated  by  tight 
neck-bands.     Tight  garments  are  mentioned  on  page  45. 

Corsets  restrict  the  natural  respiration  and  impair  the 
tone  of  the  abdominal  muscles,  which  then  inevitably  become 
weakened.  Thereby  the  tendency  of  this  part  of  the  body 
to  lay  on  fat  is  favored.  By  weakening  the  abdominal  wall 
and  driving  some  organs  downward  (as  well  as  compressing 
and  forcing  others  upward)  corsets  cause  a  protruding  and 
unsightly  deformity  of  the  parts  of  the  body  below  the  waist 
and  destroy  the  fine  outlines  of  the  hips.  The  earlier  in 
life  that  corsets  are  adopted  and  the  tighter  they  are  worn, 
the  more  do  they  prove  harmful  and  disfiguring.  Corsets 
destroy  the  suppleness  and  grace  of  the  body,  besides  im- 
pairing the  health.  Where  a  support  for  the  abdomen  is 
needed,  as  for  weakly  and  diseased  women,  one  of  the 
various  bandages,  that  hold  the  parts  up  instead  of  press- 
ing them  downward,  is  preferable  to  a  corset.  In  case  of 
unduly  large  breasts,  corsets  (when  suitably  made)  can  give 
some  support  by  resting  on  the  hips. 

Poisonous  colors  are  at  times  used  in  cloth  as  in  other 
fabrics.  Chrome  yellow  and  other  forms  of  lead  sometimes 
cause  clothing  to  be  poisonous.  Arsenic  is  the  most  com- 
monly present  of  the  harmful  substances  that  cause  under- 
wear to  be  irritant.  Skin  inflammations  may  thus  result 
from  the  use  of  red  and  other  shades  of  colored  stockings 
and  other  improperly  dyed  clothing  that  is  worn  next  to  the 


52  CLOTHING 

skin.  The  colors  may  be  called  aniline  dyes  ;  but  arsenic 
is,  in  most  of  the  harmful  cases,  used  (in  the  form  of  ar- 
senious  acid  as  a  reducing  agent)  in  their  preparation,  or 
arsenic  enters  as  an  ingredient  of  the  "  mordant  "  employed 
to  ''  fix  "  these  aniline  colors  into  vegetable  fabrics.  Arsenic 
occurs  in  many  colored  prints  and  ginghams. 

Light  muslin  and  other  goods  can  be  made  so  fireproof 
that  they  will  not  flame  up  on  contact  with  gas  or  other 
flame  to  endanger  the  life  of  the  wearer.  The  process  need 
not  be  poisonous,  although  it  may  lessen  the  durability  of 
the  goods.  The  light,  easily-burning  cloth  is  washed,  then 
soaked  in  a  solution  of  alum,  ammoniac  chloride,  borax  or 
other  salts.  Some  particularly  recommend  for  this  purpose 
a  solution  of  tungstate-of-soda  (one  part  to  five  or  more 
parts  of  water). 

Low-necked  dresses  are  not  healthful,  for  the  upper  part 
of  the  chest  needs  to  be  covered.  Children  require  cloth- 
ing that  is  warm  and  protects  every  part.  The  knees  ought 
especially  to  be  covered  at  all  times.  If  they  be  left  bare 
in  cool  weather,  such  exposure  is  very  harmful.  The  nose 
and  the  ears  need  protection  against  the  cold  of  our  north- 
ern winter. 

Outer  clothing  should  frequently  be  shaken  and  beaten 
in  the  open  air  and  away  from  windows,  kitchens  and  living 
rooms.  This  method  of  cleaning  is  better  than  the  use  of 
whisk-brooms  and  brushes  ;  for  brushes  drive  some  of  the 
dirt  (and  possible  accompanying  bacteria  of  disease)  into 
the  fabric.  Uniform  and  consistent  cleanliness  is  a  most 
valuable  aid  to  the  highest  health.  This  is  explained  in 
the  chapter  on  Infectious  Diseases.  Here  it  is  to  be  said 
that  all  articles  of  clothing  ought  to  be  kept  scrupulously 
clean.  The  cast-off  cell  secretions  and  excretions  of  the 
skin  tend  to  decompose,  give  off  odors  and  produce  irritant 
substances.  On  the  delicate  skin  of  babes  any  unclean 
clothing  is  very  irritant. 


BEDS    AND    BEDDING  53 

The  clothes,  therefore,  should  not  only  be  washed,  but 
also  all  chemicals  used,  even  if  pure  soda  and  soap,  should 
be  rinsed  out  with  pure  water.  Greasy  secretions  from  the 
skin  are  readily  absorbed  by  underwear  ;  and,  for  their 
cleansing,  alkalies  are  used  such  as  soap,  ammonia  and 
washing  soda.  Water  that  is  boiling,  or  even  very  hot, 
shrinks  wool  ;  yet  such  hot  w^ater  or  steam  is  the  best  reli- 
ance for  disinfecting  all  clothing  that  has  been  exposed  to 
infection.  The  clothing  of  those  suffering  from  typhoid 
fever,  cholera,  tuberculosis,  scarlet-fever  or  any  "  catching  " 
diseases  must  be  disinfected.  See  chapters  on  Infectious 
Diseases  and  Disinfection.  White  underclothing  and  wash- 
able garments  are  best  for  nurses  and  invalids  in  such 
diseases. 

Bedsteads  are  best  when  without  curtains  or  drapery. 
They  ought  to  be  simply  made.  Those  of  brass  or  iron  are 
preferable  to  wooden  ones.  The  cumbersome  and  uncleanly 
bedroom  furniture  of  a  few  years  ago  is  properly  yielding 
place  to  simpler  and  more  useful  patterns  that  are  smoother 
and  afford  fewer  places  for  harmful  dirt  (or  vermin)  to  remain 
in,  hidden  from  the  reach  of  the  average  cleansing.  The 
space  under  bedsteads  should  be  clear,  and  nothing  should 
be  there  to  obstruct  thorough  cleansing  and  the  free  circu- 
lation of  air.  Folding  beds  are  defective  in  not  corre- 
sponding to  these  requirements,  and  because  they  rarely 
have  the  bed-clothes  sufficiently  well  aired. 

Mattresses  and  pillows  are  best  and  most  elastic 
when  made  of  steamed  and  curled  hair,  which  should  be 
freshened  and  cleansed  from  time  to  time.  If  economy 
be  necessary,  they  may  be  thin  with  some  one  of  the  best 
recent  patterns  of  spring-beds  or  w^oven-wire  mattresses 
beneath.  Wool  is  better  for  mattresses  than  vegetable  sub- 
stances. For  convenience  in  airing  and  changing  it  about, 
the  mattress  may  be  made  in  two  or  three  equal-sized  and 
interchangeable   parts    by  means   of    cross-divisions.     Dr. 


54  CLOTHING 

Hills,  of  Harvard,  finds  that  a  certain  red-striped  ticking,  ex- 
tensively used  for  mattress-covering,  contains  much  arsenic. 
The  most  recent  improvements  in  air  mattresses  make  them 
serviceable  for  invalids  and  delicate  people  when  travelling 
amid  unusual  discomforts.  They  are  not  as  good  for  gen- 
eral use  as  clean  hair  mattresses.  They  have  the  merit  of 
being  easily  disinfected. 

If  feather  beds  be  used  for  infants,  the  feeble  and  aged, 
or  for  others  in  our  extremest  winter  weather,  these  beds 
should  be  aired  well  for  more  than  an  hour  every  day,  and 
this  in  the  sunlight  if  possible.  Feather  beds  allow  less 
waste  of  heat  by  radiation  and  by  the  evaporation  of  moist- 
ure. Hence  they  are  comfortable  in  the  extremest  cold. 
Yet,  in  the  end  they  weaken  the  skin  by  keeping  it  too 
warm. 

Feather  pillows  are  much  less  self-ventilating  and 
elastic  than  hair  pillows.  Pillows  should  not  be  thin,  nor 
very  high.  In  the  ordinary  sleeping  position  of  lying  upon 
the  side,  the  pillow  should  not  be  higher  than  suffices  to 
keep  the  spine  perfectly  straight.  If  one  lies  on  the  breast 
with  the  arm  thrown  behind  the  body,  no  pillow  is  needed. 

All  beds  and  bed-clothing  should  be  well  aired 
before  the  beds  are  made  up  after  using.  Damp  bedding 
is  unhealthful.  In  cold  weather  the  chill  of  the  bed- 
clothes in  a  cold  room  should  be  lessened  for  an  invalid  or 
delicate  person  by  the  use  of  such  things  as  jugs  or  rubber 
bottles  filled  with  warm  water.  If  beds  have  been  used  by 
invalids  having  infectious  diseases,  disinfection  should  be 
compulsory.  Steam,  if  practicable,  is  the  best  means  to 
employ  for  disinfection.  Sprinkling  the  bed  and  bedding 
with  patent  or  proprietary  disinfectants  is,  like  all  other 
means,  inferior  to  steaming. 

Bed-clothing  should  be  of  light  weight.  As  explained 
on  page  44,  a  given  weight  of  wool  protects  the  body  better 
against  cold  if  made  into  two  lightly  woven  thin  blankets 


BED-CLOTHING 


55 


rather  than  one  heavy  one.  It  is  in  all  cases  well  that  the 
outer  surface  of  the  bed-clothing  be  smooth.  Besides  al- 
lowing less  dirt  to  sift  in,  this  lessens  loss  of  warmth  from 
the  conducting  away  of  air  in  cold  weather.  If  eider-down 
coverlets  be  used,  they  should  be  of  unusually  good  quality, 
and  side-fastenings  or  other  means  should  be  attached  for 
so  keeping  them  in  place  that  restless  sleepers  cannot  toss 
these  coverings  off  and  thus  chill  the  body.  Some  people, 
who  in  waking  hours  wear  by  choice  rather  scanty  clothing, 
are  apt  to  suffer  if  the  bed-clothing  be  insufficient. 


BATHING    AND    PERSONAL    HYGIENE 

Our  clothes,  and  especially  the  customary  close  foot-wear, 
are  a  restraint  upon  the  healthy  processes  of  the  naked  skin, 
and  obstruct  the  natural  casting  off  and  removal  of  the  dead 
outer  layers  together  with  what  passes  out  of  the  pores. 
Thereby  these  decomposable  excretory  products  are  kept 
longer  upon  and  near  the  skin  than  would  be  the  case  under 
proper  natural  conditions.  This  is  particularly  so  with  the 
feet.  The  stocking,  being  between  the  skin  and  the  shoe, 
absorbs  and  rubs  off  a  portion  of  the  secretions  and  waste 
such  as  is  given  off  constantly  from  all  skin  surfaces.  If 
the  stockings  or  socks  be  not  changed  very  often,  part  of 
the  organic  and  other  "  dirt "  enters  into  and  remains  upon 
the  material  of  the  shoes.  More,  however,  lingers  upon  the 
skin.  Hence  the  skin,  especially  of  the  feet,  should  be  often 
washed  ;  for  the  unclean  excretory  products  upon  it  can 
harbor  and  favor  the  development  of  bacteria  of  various 
sorts.  When  the  skin  is  cleansed,  clean  underwear  should  at 
once  be  put  on,  for  that  recently  worn  has  skin  dirt  upon  it. 

The  skin  can  be  cleansed  to  a  certain  extent  by  rubbing 
and  scraping  it  with  cloths  or  other  appliances,  whether 
dry  or  moistened  (with  water,  alcohol,  ammonia-water,  etc.). 
If  it  be  very  greasy,  gently  rubbing  it  with  benzine  (on 
cotton)  cleanses  it  very  thoroughly,  yet  such  means  are  not 
to  be  recommended  for  general  use.  Scales  are  softened 
by  oil,  and  can  then  be  more  readily  removed. 

Baths  of  clean  water  are  the  most  efficient  means  of 
cleaning  the  skin.  Tub-baths  of  warm  water  are  the  most 
effective  for  this  purpose,  as  the  agreeable  temperature 
of  the  water  allows  one  to  remain  in   the   bath  for  some 


BATHS    AND    SOAPS  57 

time.  Thus  the  outer  cells  of  the  skin  are  loosened  and 
gently  removed.  As  the  skin  is  usually  greasy,  the  water  is 
enabled  to  take  off  this  outer  waste  skin  with  the  other 
"  dirt "  better  when  an  alkali  is  used.  So  we  can  add  a 
little  sal-soda  or  other  alkali  to  the  water,  especially  if  that 
be  "hard."  It  is  customary  to  wash  the  skin  with  the  use 
of  alkalies  combined  with  fat  so  as  to  make  soap.  In  hard 
soap,  soda  is  the  alkali ;  for  soft  soaps,  potash  is  used. 

Soaps  almost  invariably  contain  an  excess  of  alkali. 
For  ordinary  skins  in  health,  this  is  very  proper.  When  the 
skin  is  inflamed  or  very  sensitive,  this  excess  of  alkali  is  a 
defect.  At  such  times  we  prefer  a  soap  that  is  neutral ; 
that  is,  one  in  which  the  fat  is  in  such  abundance  as  to 
take  up  all  of  the  alkali.  Only  a  few  makers  supply  these. 
The  statement  of  the  manufacturer  is  not  often  a  reliable 
guide  as  to  the  purity  of  a  soap.  To  test  for  alkalinity  we 
take  a  weak  solution  of  the  soap  or  soaps,  as  well  as  one  of 
a  standard  soap  of  good  quality.  The  same  weight  of  each 
is  taken  and  dissolved  in  the  same  amount  of  water.  Test- 
tubes  holding  these  different  soap-solutions  are  arranged 
side  by  side  in  a  rack.  Then,  of  tx.  phenolphtalet?t  solution 
(one  part  in  three  hundred  parts  of  alcohol)  one  or  two 
drops  are  added  to  each  of  the  solutions.  If  a  little  free 
alkali  be  present,  a  rose  tinge  arises  at  once.  If  the 
alkali  be  more  abundant,  a  deeper  red  results.  In  pure 
water,  or  in  a  neutral  or  acid  solution,  this  phenolphtalein 
remains  colorless.     Litmus  paper  is  inferior  to  this. 

Soaps  that  are  colored  are  not  usually  desirable.  Per- 
fumed soaps  are  not  necessarily  any  better  than  those  that 
are  odorless,  and  may  be  irritant.  Soaps  made  of  lighter 
fats,  such  as,  for  instance,  cotton-seed  oil,  float  upon  the 
water  of  the  bath.  Soaps  which  are  popular  in  a  region  are 
fairly  good  for  use  there.  A  much-advertised  kind  is  not 
necessarily  better  than  others.  Conspicuous  "  puffing  "  has 
made  certain  imported  soaps  sell  very  widely,  although  in  the 


58  PERSONAL    HYGIENE 

land  whence  these  come  they  have  only  an  ordinary  stand- 
ing among  competent  specialists.  Soft  soap  of  good  quality 
may  be  used  when  a  tough  skin  is  very  dirty,  or  when  scales 
are  to  be  removed  from  portions  of  the  body  where  there  is 
no  inflammation.  Where  the  skin  is  irritated  and  inflamed, 
as,  for  example,  in  eczema,  soap  and  water  must  be  used 
very  cautiously  if  at  all.  Very  rough  towels  are  not  needed 
for  drying  the  skin.  The  delicate  skin  of  babes  must  not 
be  washed  too  often  or  rubbed  at  all  vigorously.  All  soap 
should  be  rinsed  from  the  skin  by  the  use  of  pure  water. 
Those  who  have  very  dry  skins  do  not  need  the  soaps  and 
the  abundant  washings  that  are  proper  for  greasy  skins. 
When  the  skin  is  very  dry  and  brash  after  a  bath,  a  gentle 
rubbing  with  oil  may  be  useful.  All  bath  water  should  be 
clean  and  pure. 

While  the  use  of  soap  and  a  warm  tub-bath  or  swimming  in  comfort- 
ably warm  water  is  the  best  means  for  cleansing  the  skin,  shower  baths 
with  separate  rooms  for  each  individual  are  easier  and  more  economical 
to  use  in  public  baths.  For  the  philanthropic,  who  wish  to  aid  the  cause 
of  good  health  and  cleanliness,  an  excellent  work  is  the  introduction  of 
such  baths  among  the  most  unclean  of  the  tenement-house  population 
of  cities.  Of  late  the  idea  has  been  adopted  from  Germany  by  various 
charities,  and  among  others  by  the  New  York  Society  for  Improving  the 
Condition  of  the  Poor.  This  society  has  built  an  attractive  bath-house 
at  No.  9  Centre  Market  Place,  New  York  City.  Five  cents  is  the 
charge  to  each  individual  using  the  bath  for  twenty  minutes.  The  re- 
sults are  very  satisfactory.  The  amount  of  water  used  there  for  each 
shower  bath  is  forty  gallons,  which  is  ten  gallons  more  than  is  con- 
sidered a  suitable  amount  for  an  ordinary  tub-bath.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  use  chemical  disinfectants  for  the  towels,  since  steam  is  present  in 
such  places,  and,  as  will  be  found  explained  later  in  this  book,  steam 
or  very  hot  water  constitutes  the  best  of  all  disinfectants.  Such  baths 
can  be  arranged  more  economically  than  the  one  just  cited  and  yet  be 
very  effective.  It  is  important  that  such  charities  be  open  for  cleansing 
filthy  vagrants,  and  that  a  steam-jacket  kettle  or  other  appliance  be  at 
hand  for  disinfecting  their  clothing.  Such  people  need  cleansing,  and 
the  health  of  our  populations  requires  that  "  the  great  unwashed," 
their  clothes,  and  the  places  where  they  lodge  be  cleaned  at  times. 


EFFECTS    OF    VARIOUS    BATHS  59 

Baths  that  have  a  temperature  anywhere  from  92°  F.  to 
99°  F.  are  spoken  of  as  war7n.  Above  that,  they  are  classed 
as  hot.  When  the  temperature  of  the  water  is  below  (iZ°  F., 
the  bath  is  called  cold.  Many  physicians,  especially  English 
ones,  regard  that  a  warm  tub-bath  makes  one  liable  to  take 
cold  unless  such  bath  be  immediately  followed  by  a  cold 
douche.  The  Japanese  and  some  people  among  us  use 
very  hot  baths  with  extreme  satisfaction  and  apparent  good 
results.     Excessive  warm  bathing  weakens  the  skin. 

Cold  bathing,  especially  when  indiscriminately  advised, 
often  does  more  harm  than  good.  The  robust  can  stand  it, 
although  occasionally  it  causes  skin  disease  among  them. 
The  torpid  are  seemingly  invigorated  by  its  momentary 
stimulus,  at  least  for  the  time  being.  For  the  feeble,  how- 
ever, cold  bathing  may  be  very  harmful.  In  heart  disease 
of  any  consequence  it  is  not  to  be  permitted.  For  such  cases 
the  temperature  of  the  water  used  should  be  near  that  of 
the  body  and  not  above  98.5°  F.  A  bluish  appearance 
of  the  skin  after  cold  baths  indicates  that  these  should  be 
discontinued.  The  very  young  or  very  old,  the  weakly,  and 
people  with  organic  disease  of  any  kind  must  use  cold 
baths  very  cautiously  if  at  all.  Such  baths  are  not  suited 
for  menstruating  or  pregnant  women,  and  should  not  be 
taken  when  the  stomach  is  full. 

A  cold  bath,  t^ken  rapidly  by  a  person  in  good  average  health,  causes 
at  first  a  chilly  sensation.  This  is  speedily  followed  by  a  brief  warmth 
and  glow  of  the  skin,  because  the  small  blood-vessels  of  the  skin  are 
dilated  from  relaxation  after  the  original  stimulus  of  the  cold.  More 
blood,  too,  than  usual  is  sent  through  these  dilated  blood-vessels  because 
the  heart  is  stimulated  to  unusual  activity.  At  the  same  time,  there 
is  an  increased  production  of  heat  within  the  body.  This  comes  chiefly 
from  the  muscles,  and  is  greater  when  the  cold  bath  introduces  at  the 
same  time  the  healthful  exercise  of  swimming. 

If  one  remain  in  cold  water  for  a  long  time,  the  cold  causes  the 
blood-vessels  of  the  skin  to  remain  contracted  (causing  the  skin  to  ap- 
pear purplish),  and  blood  is  thereby  driven  to   the  inner  organs  and 


6o  PERSONAL    HYGIENE 

congestion  of  varying  seriousness  results.  Of  course,  the  body  loses 
heat  in  cold  water.  The  amount  of  this  may  be  more  than  four  times 
as  much  as  would  be  lost  under  ordinary  circumstances  without  the 
bath.  In  midsummer,  this  loss  of  body  heat  is  often  a  healthful  relief. 
Many  also  contend  that  cold  baths  are  a  valuable  means  of  treating 
fevers.  That  will  not  be  discussed  here.  It  may  be  stated  that  cold 
baths  are  not  suited  for  all  cases. 

Turkish  baths  are  hygienically  preferable  to  stea?7i  baths  (called 
also  Russian  baths).  In  the  latter,  moist  air  is  used.  In  the  Turkish 
bath,  the  air  is  warm  and  dry,  having  a  temperature  of  115°  F.  and 
upward.  In  the  Orient,  a  very  much  greater  heat  is  sometimes  used. 
This  dry  and  hot  air  causes  much  water  to  pass  out  through  the  pores 
of  the  skin.  After  this,  attendants  usually  knead  and  wash  the 
skin.  Then  a  cold  spray  or  a  plunge  into  cold  water,  with  gentle 
drying  of  the  skin,  completes  the  essential  part  of  the  bath.  Vari- 
ous accessories  and  luxurious  appointments  go  with  most  public  baths 
of  this  type.  Certain  features  may  be  introduced  that  can  hardly  be 
commended  as  healthful. 

Turkish  baths  cause  the  skin  to  be  washed  very  thoroughly,  both  by 
its  own  copious  sweat  and  the  soap  and  water  used.  Most  persons  feel 
brighter  and  perhaps  stronger  for  a  while  after  such  baths.  These 
cause  the  urine  to  become  more  acid  and  concentrated.  They  also 
lessen  the  body-weight  by  more  than  a  pound,  since  they  take  off  water 
through  the  skin.  Where  the  kidneys  work  defectively  such  means 
are  of  value  ;  but  for  such  cases  the  public  baths  do  not  afford  the 
best  means  of  employing  this  hot-air  treatment.  A  little  portable  ap- 
paratus, familiar  in  hospitals  and  sick-rooms,  answers  for  invalids  in 
kidney  diseases.  When  organic  disease  of  the  heart  or  great  blood- 
vessels exists,  Turkish  baths  are  dangerous.  Some  consider  them 
valuable  in  cases  of  neuralgic  and  rheumatic  disorders^  slight  bronchitis 
and  beginning  "  colds."  People  and  races  that  use  such  baths  very 
often  are  apt  to  appear  inferior  to  the  average  in  "stamina"  and 
general  vitality.  How  much  the  weakness  has  to  do  with  the  baths, 
it  is  not  easy  to  say. 

Baths  of  various  sorts  are  uselessly  multiplied  in  variety  and  com- 
plexity. The  "  mud  baths,"  *'  electric  baths,"  and  ever  so  many 
other  kinds  seem  to  be,  as  Dr.  W.  Hale  White,  of  London,  expresses 
it,  "  immensely  overrated  ty  all  sorts  of  impudent  quacks,  who  issue 
pretentious  advertisements  designed  to  attract  persons  to  particular 
bathing  establishments  in  which  these  quacks  have  a  pecuniary  in- 
terest." 


BATH-ROOMS COMPLEXION  6l 

Bath-rooms  should  be  heated.  Furnace-heat  or  fires  are 
there  useful  for  drying  off  the  steam.  Bath-rooms  must  be 
well  ventilated  ;  and  care  must  be  taken  that  no  gas  empoi- 
son the  air.  This  applies  especially  to  the  primitive  ways  of 
heating  water  by  peculiar  set  stoves  seen  in  some  places.  The 
walls  and  ceiling  should  be  very  smooth.  Linoleum  cover- 
ing is  good  for  the  floor.  If  tiled,  sheets  of  cork  may  bo 
over  the  tiling  wherever  the  bather  is  to  step  out  of  the  bath. 
Porcelain  bath-tubs  are  cleanly  and  usually  durable.  The 
largest  weigh  between  eight  hundred  and  one  thousand 
pounds.  Hence  they  are  very  cumbersome.  They  are  also 
exceedingly  expensive.  Recently  bath-tubs  made  of  com- 
pressed wood-fibre  have  been  introduced,  which  resemble 
porcelain  tuls  in  appearance  and  cost  much  less.  They 
have  the  advantage  of  not  being  cold  to  the  touch,  and 
weigh  much  less  than  one  hundred  pounds  each.  If  only 
they  prove  durable  after  long  trial,  they  are  bound  to  be- 
come deservedly  very  popular. 

Cosmetics  produce  neither  health  nor  beauty.  If 
used  at  all,  they  must  never  contain  harmful  substances. 
Lead  is  apt  to  occur  in  preparations  for  the  hair,  and  mer- 
cury is  usually  present  in  the  complexion  washes  so  exten- 
sively advertised.  These  various  articles  often  cause  disease, 
and  people  should  be  warned  against  their  use.  Complexion 
depends  upon  pigment  particles  deeper  in  the  skin  than 
nostrums  can  reach.  The  various  preparations  for  removing 
superfluous  hairs  are  unreliable  and  harmful.  Even  the 
employment  of  the  electric  needle,  for  such  purposes,  in 
very  skilful  hands  is  not  particularly  satisfactory.  Visi- 
ble scars  result  from  its  use.  Glycerine  with  at  least  one- 
sixth  part  of  water  added  is  better  for  the  skin  than  when 
used  pure.  Equal  parts  of  glycerine  and  yolk  of  egg  make 
a  soothing  application. 

Powder  applied  to  the  face  ought  to  be  regarded  as  so 
much  dirt.     In  some  cases  it  visibly  injures  the  complexion. 


62  PERSONAL    HYGIENE 

By  clogging  the  pores  and  drying  up  the  skin,  it  can  do 
harm.  If  used,  the  simplest — such  as  finely  powdered  starch 
— is  the  best.  To  keep  this  from  injuring  the  skin,  it  is  well 
that  beforehand  a  slight  amount  of  oily  matter  of  the  blandest 
and  freshest  quality  be  applied  and  then  wiped  off.  Lano- 
line,  fresh  almond  oil,  sweet  oil  or  vaseline  may  be  used. 
These  lessen  the  hability  of  face  powder  or  other  dirt  to 
obstruct  the  openings  of  the  sweat-ducts  or  fat-ducts  upon 
the  surface  of  the  skin. 

Shaving  causes  the  hair  to  grow  stiffer,  and  so  is  not  to 
be  advised  for  those  who  wish  a  fine,  silky  beard.  Irritation 
from  shaving  comes  with  the  use  of  a  dull  razor.  Razors 
should  be  rinsed,  dried  and  strapped  immediately  after  using. 
Barbers  often  cause  irritation  of  the  skin.  If  their  instru- 
ments, soap,  hands,  etc.,  are  not  strictly  clean,  skin  disease 
may  result.  Dangerous  erysipelas  of  the  face  occurs  at 
times  from  such  a  cause.  The  microorganisms,  that  cause 
this  and  other  diseases  of  the  face,  are  destroyed  by  dipping 
the  razor  or  other  utensils  for  a  minute  in  boiling  water,  if 
this  be  practicable.  The  beard,  like  the  hair,  should  be 
kept  clean.  The  beard  ought  to  be  washed  very  often. 
The  scalp  usually  needs  washing  no  oftener  than  every  ten 
or  fourteen  days.  If  "dandruff"  scales  be  present,  oil  or 
vaseline  may  be  used  before  washing.  Mild  soap  or  yolk  of 
egg  may  be  rubbed  gently  upon  the  scalp.  Then  this  is  to 
be  well  rinsed  off.     "  Hair-restorers  "  are  wholly  useless. 

The  mouth  needs  to  be  rinsed  out  after  every  meal. 
Babies  should  have  their  mouths  rinsed  with  water  to  which 
a  very  small  amount  of  saleratus  has  been  added.  The  nip- 
ples of  a  nursing  woman  correspondingly  need  cleaning  off 
with  similar  solutions.  Bathing  the  nipples  occasionally 
with  weak  alcohol  and  water  is  beneficial. 

Teeth  are  liable  to  decay  when  the  hard  enamel  coating 
is  lost  from  their  outside.  Then,  various  bacteria  slowly  eat 
away  the  inner  (organic)  substance  of  the  teeth,  and  acids 


CARE    OF    THE    TEETH  63 

dissolve  mineral  matter  that  is  not  broken  away.  Thus  the 
decay  of  the  teeth  results.  Injury  or  other  cause  that  cracks 
or  breaks  the  enamel,  favors  decay  by  removing  the  enamel 
coating.  Acids  have  the  same  harmful  effect.  Hence  the 
importance  of  rinsing  the  mouth  after  eating,  especially  when 
acids  or  sour  fruits  have  been  used.  As  alkalies  neutralize 
acidity,  there  is  an  obvious  advantage  in  cleaning  out  the 
mouth  with  water  to  which  saleratus  or  other  alkali  has  been 
added  in  small  amount.  Benzoic  acid  in  solution  seems  to 
be  the  most  effective  substance  for  washing  out  the  mouth 
and  destroying  the  bacteria  that  cause  decay  of  the  teeth. 
One  part  of  this  may  be  dissolved  in  four  parts  of  alcohol 
with  addition  of  a  slight  amount  of  flavoring  such  as  pepper- 
mint-oil and  thymol.  Of  this,  a  teaspoonful  is  used  in  some- 
what less  than  a  wineglassful  of  water  to  cleanse  around  the 
teeth  after  the  food  has  been  carefully  removed  by  soft 
wooden   or  quill   toothpicks. 

In  cleansing  the  teeth,  the  most  important  thing  is  this 
removal  of  all  particles  of  food  away  from  the  teeth.  Soft 
toothpicks  and  threads  drawn  between  the  teeth  are  most 
useful  in  this  respect.  After  meals  and  before  going  to  bed, 
the  mouth  needs  brushing  more  than  in  the  morning. 
Saleratus-water  is  then  always  desirable  for  rinsing  the 
teeth.  Brushes  must  not  be  stiff,  and  are  less  important 
than  the  other  cleansing  means  spoken  of  in  this  paragraph. 
They  should  neither  irritate  nor  push  up  the  gums.  For 
cleansing  off  yellowish  and  other  growths  on  the  surface,  a 
wet  cotton  cloth  having  upon  it  a  little  "  prepared  chalk  "  is 
valuable.  A  tenth  part  of  its  bulk  of  magnesia  and  also  a 
little  orris-root  may  be  added  if  a  more  elegant  dentifrice  be 
desired.     Pumice-stone  is  not  fit  for  such  use. 

Filling  is  necessary  for  decayed  teeth  even  in  early  years. 
The  process  consists  in  removing  all  the  decayed  bone  and 
leaving  a  cavity  so  shaped  that  it  will  hold  the  filling,  of 
whatever  material   that  may  be.     Gold  filling   causes   too 


64  PERSONAL    HYGIENE 

tedious  and  painful  an  operation  to  be  tolerated  by  all 
children.  Various  other  substances  then  answer  the  pur- 
pose. Amalgam  fillings  are  very  durable  and  efficient. 
Some  dentists  advise  that  the  grinding-teeth,  coming  in  the 
sixth  year,  be  removed  as  soon  as  they  appear  to  crowd  the 
other  incoming  second  teeth,  as  otherwise  the  liability  to 
decay  is  increased  by  the  crowded  condition  of  the  teeth. 
It  is  well,  however,  to  wait  some  time  and  see  if  the  jaw  do 
not  enlarge  and  accommodate  itself.  In  any  case  it  is  better 
that  these  six-year  grinding-teeth  (first  molars)  be  pulled 
out  than  that  the  teeth  be  filed  apart  when  very  crowded. 

Infants  cut  their  lower  two  front  teeth  when  they  are  not 
far  from  half  a  year  old.  Before  babies  are  ten  months  old, 
they  usually  have  also  cut  their  upper  four  front  teeth. 
Then  the  teeth  appear  at  intervals  of  a  few  months.  Before 
children  are  thirty  months  old,  all  these  "  milk  teeth  "  ought 
to  have  appeared.  There  are  twenty  in  the  entire  set. 
These  should  be  pulled  out  early  enough  to  prevent  the  per- 
manent teeth  from  being  twisted  or  badly  placed.  Even  if 
the  permanent  teeth  are  somewhat  irregular,  they  can  often 
be  easily  brought  into  place,  by  use  of  lips,  tongue  and  other 
gentle  pressure,  if  this  be  enjoined  upon  the  child  very 
early  and   attended   to   with   patience. 

The  permanent  teeth  come  gradually  between  the  sixth 
and  the  twelfth  year,  except  that  the  "  wisdom  teeth  "  come 
a  number  of  years  later.  This  is  the  most  critical  period  for 
the  teeth.  They  should  then  be  examined  at  least  once  in 
six  months.  If  young  people  indulge  freely  in  sweet  things, 
they  especially  ought  to  be  careful  to  rinse  the  mouth  and 
clean  the  teeth. 

The  ears  should  be  kept  clean  by  washing  as  far  as  the 
outer  opening  of  the  tube  leading  in  to  the  middle  ear.  Hard 
or  pointed  instruments  should  never  be  put  inside  of  the 
ears.  With  the  youngest  children  it  is  important  to  be  very 
careful  that  no  water  enters  their  ears  during  the  process  of 


CARE    OF    THE    EARS    AND    THE    EYES  65 

bathing  or  washing.  The  brownish  ''  ear-wax  "  tends  to  come 
out  of  the  ear  without  any  outside  assistance.  The  move- 
ment of  the  jaw-bone  aids  this  natural  process.  All  use 
of  water  to  wash  out  the  deep  parts  of  the  ear  canal,  the 
use  of  hair-pins,  ''  ear-spoons,"  matches,  rolled-up  edges  of 
towels,  and  other  things  introduced  into  the  ear,  tend  to  roll 
up  this  wax  in  hard  masses  which  cannot  then  always  get 
out  and  may  totally  obstruct  the  ear  passage. 

Water  entering  the  ears,  as  well  as  all  other  substances  or 
fluids  introduced  there,  can  cause  inflammation  and  trouble, 
even  in  adults.  After  surf-bathing  or  plunging  in  any 
water,  the  water  should  be  got  out  of  the  ear  by  means  of 
a  sidewise  throwing  movement  of  the  head.  For  those  in 
whom  the  drum-membrane  between  the  outer  and  middle 
ear  is  not  perfect,  but  has  a  perforation,  however  small,  all 
diving  or  bathing  that  causes  water  to  enter  the  ear  is  objec- 
tionable and  may  produce  serious  trouble  within  the  head. 
Unclean  water  is  naturally  worse  than  clean  water  in  this 
respect;  yet  all  water  is  undesirable  in  the  ears.  Nose 
catarrhs  and  "cold  in  the  head  "  tend  to  travel  from  the  in- 
terior and  back  of  the  nose  up  into  the  ear.  It  is  not  well 
to  blow  the  nose  hard  at  such  times  or  when  the  nose  iS 
filled  with  water  after  bathing.  Rash  and  bold  operations 
upon  the  tissues  of  the  inner  nose  are  not  usually  satisfactory. 

Cold  blasts  of  wind,  especially  when  moist,  tend  to  cause 
ear  troubles.  Pledgets  of  cotton-wool,  however,  when 
introduced  into  the  ear  to  protect  it  against  such  influ- 
ences, tend  to  weaken  the  skin  if  such  pledgets  be  worn 
in-doorSc  They  are  not  in  general  advisable  for  use  in 
warm  places.  The  danger  of  blows  upon  the  ears  is 
great.  Such  things  may  cause  lasting  deafness  or  worse 
results.  Stopping  the  ears  with  thick  cotton  lessens  the 
harmful  effects  of  very  loud  noises  and  concussions. 

The  eyes  are  best  cared  for  by  attending  in  every 
way  to  the  general  health.  The  water  used  for  the  eyes 
5 


66  PERSONAL    HYGIENE 

should  be  very  clean.  If  any  "  eye-water  "  be  used,  noth- 
ing is  to  be  recommended  that  is  stronger  than  a  two  per 
cent,  solution  of  boracic  acid  (or  borax)  in  camphor- 
water,  to  which  ten  per  cent,  or  less  of  alcohol  may  be 
added  very  cautiously  if  it  be  well  borne.  Open-air  life 
where  the  eyes  are  guarded  from  glare  is  better  for  the 
eyesight  of  children  than  school-work.  They  should  not 
attend  school  before  they  are  seven  years  old,  unless  in  for- 
ward and  restless  cases  where  the  home  influences  are  not 
favorable.  At  all  times  care  should  be  taken  that  the  light 
is  strong  enough,  but  not  too  strong.  The  eyes  of  the 
young  must  then  not  be  used  upon  very  small  objects,  nor 
upon  those  which  have  to  be  held  near  in  order  for  clear 
vision.  Children  should  not  play  in  dark  rooms  with  pict- 
ures or  books  that  require  them  to  strain  the  eyes.  Other 
aspects  of  this  question  are  treated  in  the  chapters  upon 
Schools  and  upon  Lighting.  The  young  babe  must  not  be 
held  near  a  bright  flame  nor  where  it  faces  any  strong  light. 
The  eyesight  is  injured,  or  at  any  rate  impaired  for 
a  while,  by  various  causes  touched  upon  in  this  book. 
The  impropriety  of  having  very  tight  collars  or  neck-bands 
and  their  tendency  to  cause  eye  disorders  is  mentioned 
elsewhere.  (See  page  51.)  In  general,  the  eyes  may  be 
said  to  be  affected  by  occupations  where  irritation  and 
wounding  are  very  liable  to  occur,  and  where  constant 
minute  work  has  to  be  done  with  poor  light.  It  is  very 
rare  to  find  a  calling  in  which  a  chance  may  not  be  afforded 
for  some  injury  to  the  eyes.  Considerable  discrimination  is 
required  as  regards  every  aspect  of  such  questions.  Thus, 
in  the  matter  of  typewriting  machines,  it  is  regarded  that 
the  keys  that  are  white  and  angular  (not  round)  are  best 
for  the  health  of  the  worker.  Lenses,  to  magnify  the 
work,  are  useful  and  hence  advisable  for  people  engaged 
upon  minute  work  such  as,  for  instance,  engraving,  litho- 
graphing, watchmaking,  fine  drawing,  delicate  sewing  and 


PROTFXTION    OF    THE    EYESIGHT  67 

embroidery.  Those  who  have  weak  eyes,  or  who  have  lost 
one  eye,  should  occupy  themselves  with  other  work  than 
these  above  indicated.  Bookkeeping  may  be  considered  a 
much  more  suitable  and  less  dangerous  occupation  for  the 
one-eyed  than  any  work  which  causes  them  to  come  into 
the  neighborhood  of  machinery. 

Various  drugs  are  clearly  harmful  to  the  eyes.  Not  to 
speak  of  those  used  or  abused  in  cases  of  eye  trouble, 
quinine  may  be  mentioned  as  in  all  probability  causative  of 
disease  of  the  eye,  in  case  that  excessive  amounts  are  re- 
peatedly given.  The  liability  of  people  who  use  alcoholic 
liquors  extensively,  to  have  cataracts  and  affections  of  the 
nerves  and  retina,  is  insisted  upon  by  specialists.  Tobacco, 
too,  like  lead-poisoning,  is  causative  of  eye  disorders.  It 
may  cause  color-blindness.  (See  chapter  on  Occupations  for 
remarks  on  color-blindness.) 

The  eyes  at  ■work,  and  when  looking  at  near  objects, 
should  occasionally  be  rested  by  taking  them  off  of  the 
work  and  causing  them  to  be  directed  upon  more  distant 
objects.  This  is  especially  so  if  in  order  to  see  well  one 
has  to  hold  the  work  less  than  thirteen  inches  away  from 
the  eyes.  The  light  must  be  strong  enough  to  enable  one 
to  see  objects  clearly  ;  a  shade  is  needed  to  shield  the 
eyes  from  the  glare  of  bright  light.  Ventilation  of  rooms 
ought  to  be  sufficient  to  obviate  the  eye-irritation  that  is 
liable  to  come  from  dust  and  smoke.  Those  to  whose  eyes 
the  inevitable  dust  or  smoke  of  their  occupation  is  very 
irritant  ought  to  try  some  other  calling.  Some  eyes,  other- 
wise of  the  strongest,  are  very  sensitive  to  such  influences. 

In  machine-shops,  the  foreman  may  attempt  at  once,  by 
means  of  a  strong  electro-magnet,  to  remove  any  iron  sliver 
that  may  have  entered  the  surface  of  the  eye.  Schubert 
recommends  a  very  fine  and  clean  wire  loop  as  better  for 
the  purpose.  Before  use,  it  should  be  dipped  for  a  moment 
in  boiling  water  or  passed  through  a  flame  and  allowed   to 


6^  PERSONAL    HYGIENE 

cool.     "  Eye-Stones "  are   unfit    for    removing    bits  of  dirt, 
sand,  etc.,  from  the  eye. 

Defects  of  vision  need  the  careful  adjustment  of  eye- 
glasses. People  ought  not  to  refrain  from  the  use  of  spec- 
tacles through  fear  of  seeming  aged  ;  for,  although  glasses 
do  not  render  the  eyes  perfect  nor  even  strengthen  them, 
the  neglect  to  use  the  glasses  needed  for  advancing  years 
strains  the  accommodation  and  weakens  the  eyesight  still 
more  than  would  be  the  case  if  glasses  were  used. 

Concave  glasses  are  used  to  relieve  near-sightedness  (or  myopia). 
Convex  glasses  are  needed  to  relieve  the  far-sightedness  (or  p7'esbyopid) 
which  is  quite  apt  to  have  begun  when  one  has  got  well  along  in  mid- 
dle life.  These  convex  glasses  (used  accordingly  to  relieve  aging  eye- 
sight) must  be  as  strong  as  the  wearer  can  use  without  discomfort. 
Yet  at  the  same  time  they  should  enable  one  to  distinguish  perfectly 
well  such  near  objects  as  would  be  indistinct  but  for  the  aid  of  glasses. 
These  convex  glasses  become  more  powerful  when  the  distance  between 
them  and  the  eye  is  increased  by  setting  them  further  down  over  the 
bridge  of  the  nose  and  toward  its  tip.  Yet  this  is  not  a  proper  expedi- 
ent to  employ  regularly,  since  such  adjustment  means  that  the  glasses 
are  not  strong  enough.      Hence  stronger  ones  should  be  chosen. 

With  near-sightedness,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  best  that  we  recom- 
mend, in  all  ordinary  cases,  the  weakest  (concave)  glasses  with  which  one 
can  see  well.  The  tendency  is  for  weaker  and  weaker  glasses  to  be 
needed  as  the  wearer  grows  older.  Near-sighted  children,  who  in  study- 
ing or  at  other  work  can  without  the  aid  of  spectacles  see  objects  thir- 
teen or  fourteen  inches  away,  should  not  use  glasses  for  seeing  near 
objects.  It  is  well  that  children  under  ten  years  of  age  be  not  allowed 
glasses,  because  the  eyes  may  be  very  seriously  injured  when  the  glasses 
are  broken  in  playing.  The  near-sighted  worker  should  have  glasses 
no  stronger  than  suffice  to  render  the  work  clearly  visible  at  about 
eighteen  inches  away.  The  working  glasses  must  be  from  two  to 
three  "  dioptrics "  weaker  than  those  used  for  seeing  to  a  distance. 
The  long-distance  glasses  should  never  be  used  for  seeing  near  objects. 
The  only  exception  to  the  rule  given  at  the  beginning  of  this  para- 
graph is  to  be  made  when  the  near-sightedness  is  extreme.  Then  an 
error  may  be  made  in  selecting  glasses  that  are  too  weak.  The  em- 
ployment of  the  ordinary  test-glasses  must  then  especially  be  supple- 
mented by  using  the  ophthalmoscope  as  well.     Yet — as  Bruecke  has 


GLASSES    FOR    THE    EYES  69 

remarked — it  is  rarely  necessary  to  subject  children  to  any  other  than 
the  usual  test-glass  trial  of  the  eyes.  Astigmatism  is  recognized  by 
testing,  and  calls  for  special  glasses. 

After  cataract  operations,  the  strongest  convex  glasses  are  needed, 
and  at  least  two  pair  of  spectacles  are  required.  One  pair  is  for  hand- 
work and  reading  ;  the  other  for  seeing  objects  at  a  distance. 

When  the  work  is  finished,  for  which  glasses  are  needed,  these  should 
be  taken  off.  Experience  does  not  recommend  those  complex  glasses 
which  are  cut  so  that  in  one  lens  they  seemingly  combine  the  advan- 
tages of  glasses  for  seeing  to  a  distance  and  also  for  distinguishing  near 
work  (the  former  being  in  the  upper,  the  latter  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
same  frame). 

For  reading  or  for  near  work,  spectacles  are  far  better  than  the  more 
elegant  eye-glasses  that  are  held  on  the  nose  by  means  of  a  spring. 
Spring  eye-glasses  can,  however,  if  desired,  be  used  for  seeing  to  a 
distance.  Spectacles  are  more  reliable  because  they  remain  fixed  in  an 
approved  and  adjusted  position,  and  thereby  the  eye  sees  through  the 
middle  of  the  glasses  if  they  have  been  properly  selected  in  the  begin- 
ning. When  the  glasses  are  "strong,"  especial  consideration  must  be 
given  to  framing  the  spectacles  so  that  the  plane  of  each  lens  is  perpen- 
dicular to  the  axis  of  vision,  or  as  nearly  so  as  the  maker  can  possibly 
arrange  them.  All  competent  opticians  understand  how  to  adjust  the 
optical  centre.  The  glasses  should  be  just  far  enough  away  from  the 
eye-ball  to  keep  the  glass  from  being  touched  by  the  lashes  in  the  mov- 
ing eye-lids.  Hence  the  "  bridge  "  of  the  spectacles  has  to  be  adjusted 
somewhat  according  as  the  bridge  of  the  nose  is  prominent  or  depressed. 

Adjusting  spectacles  ought  to  be  a  business  in  itself.  Dealers  in 
variety  goods  and  other  articles  do  not  usually  have  the  special  experi- 
ence that  is  desirable  for  determining  just  what  glasses  are  best.  Cer- 
tainly, the  cheap  spectacles  and  eye-glasses  sold  by  ignorant  and  irre- 
sponsible people  are  to  be  avoided.  Yet  very  high-priced  spectacles  are 
not  necessarily  the  best.  Rock-crystal  is  not  so  valuable  as  is  sometimes 
represented.  Whether  the  lenses  be  made  of  soft  (crown)  glass  or  of 
hard  (flint)  glass  is  not  nearly  so  important  a  matter  as  their  proper 
selection  and  the  correct  adjustment  of  the  framework  that  holds  the 
glasses. 

Dark  glasses  protect  the  eyes  from  glare.  Blue  glass  has  the  merit 
of  lessening  the  red  and  yellow  rays  of  light.  Mica  used  in  spectacles, 
instead  of  glass,  protects  the  eyes  from  heat.  For  people  handling 
fireworks,  etc.,  such  eye-protectors  in  an  asbestos  mask  (which  may  be 
part  of  an  entire  asbestos  suit)  are  very  valuable. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE 

The  ideal  of  human  perfection  must  always  include 
enough  of  the  animal  to  insure  that,  with  the  finest  mental 
capacity,  there  be  always  a  strong  body  in  sound  health. 
Whether  we  reason  from  the  teachings  of  the  anatomical 
table,  the  laboratory  and  the  bedside,  or  scan  the  records 
of  all  peoples  from  the  remotest  antiquity  to  the  account  of 
yesterday's  doings,  we  shall  find  that  the  races  which  are 
physically  strongest  are  invariably  among  the  foremost. 
This  statement  requires  an  explanation.  It  needs  to  be  em- 
phasized that  big,  strong  muscles  constitute  only  a  portion 
of  what  is  rightly  called  physical  strength.  The  term  should 
rather  embrace  the  healthy  complex  harmony  of  the  entire 
system.  Although  fine  muscles  are  valuable,  mere  muscu- 
larity is  for  most  people  anything  but  desirable.  Even  in 
purely  physical  contests  of  entire  fairness,  the  most  muscu- 
lar bully  is  not  at  all  sure  to  be  the  winner. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  adequate  strength  and  quality 
of  nerve,  together  with  a  perfect  balance  between  all  the 
organs  of  the  body,  are  necessary  to  the  physical  excellence 
upon  which  health  and  success  depend.  The  developments 
of  our  prevalent  civilization  tend  to  weaken  prosperous 
nations  by  promoting  indolent  and  enervating  luxury  and 
luxuriousness  among  the  affluent  and  those  who  imitate 
them.  The  extreme  division  of  labor  that  accompanies 
our  industrial  and  commercial  progress,  and  the  artificial 
conditions  under  which  the  struggle  for  existence  is  carried 
on,  cause  the  vast  majority  of  the  people  to  be  employed  in 
more  or  less  unhealthful  toil.  This  includes  most  seden- 
tary workers,  whose  occupation,  like  that  of  the  others,  calls 


EFFECTS    OF    EXERCISE  7I 

for  SO  much  expenditure  of  vital  force,  that  there  is  little 
energy  remaining  when  the  day's  work  is  over. 

Diversions  of  some  kind  are  needed  for  all  of  the  work- 
ers in  a  population.  The  opportunities  for  these  differ 
greatly  according  to  the  facilities  afforded  by  place  and 
season.  The  work  from  which  one  has  just  ceased  should 
influence  the  nature  of  a  recreation.  The  manual  laborer 
hardly  needs  any  extra  physical  exercise  ;  while  for  the  clerk, 
writer,  or  similar  sedentary  worker,  any  mild  and  agreeable 
muscular  exertion  is  beneficial  unless  there  exist  some  un- 
usual and  special  reason  against  it.  The  diversions  to  be 
recommended  as  healthful  are  those  which  can  truly  be 
considered  to  be  recreatio7is.  The  more  they  serve  to  re- 
move the  disproportion  that  the  habitual  occupation  creates 
between  the  over-used  and  the  insufficiently  used  portions  of 
the  organism,  the  better  they  are.  The  hygienic  impor- 
tance of  recreation  for  laborers  is  touched  upon  in  the 
chapter  on  Occupations. 

Muscular  exercise  is  necessarily  accompanied  by  the  pro- 
duction of  much  more  carbonic  acid  gas  than  the  body 
produces  in  a  state  of  rest.  The  muscular  system  is  the 
part  where  this  gas  is  developed  by  the  actual  consumption 
of  carbon-containing  articles  of  food.  Most  of  this  car- 
bonic dioxide  is  cast  off  from  the  body  through  the  lungs. 
Through  the  lungs  also,  oxygen  (from  the  air  breathed  in) 
enters  the  system  to  combine  with  the  carbon  which  muscu- 
lar work  causes  to  be  used  up. 

This  also  develops  heat  ;  for  whether  carbon  be  con- 
sumed in  a  fire,  in  a  gas  flame  or  in  muscles,  heat  in  all 
cases  results.  This  heat  may  be  very  welcome  or  otherwise, 
according  to  the  weather  and  other  conditions. 

Besides  these  products  of  exercise,  there  is  a  certain  de- 
gree of  waste  of  the  nitrogenous  substance  of  the  muscles. 
When  one  is  in  fair  health  and  when  the  muscles  are  habit- 
ually exercised   in   a  given   way,    the   amount    of   used-up 


72 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE 


muscle  substance  (which  chiefly  goes  off  by  the  kidneys) 
is  less  than  in  overwork  or  in  irregular,  spasmodic  or  ex- 
cessive exercise.  In  the  latter  case,  much  tissue-waste  is, 
in  good  health  and  under  favoring  conditions,  thrown  out 
of  the  body.  If  these  conditions  be  less  favorable,  the 
nitrogenous  waste  is  in  a  less  perfectly  oxidized  form.  If 
these  products  be  retained  in  the  body,  stiffness  of  the 
muscles  results.  If  serious  kidney  disease  be  present,  more 
or  less  dangerous  symptoms  result  from  the  accumulation 
of  such  excretory  products  within  the  system.  While  gentle 
exercise  favors  the  removal  of  these  poisonous  substances, 
excessive  exercise  increases  their  amount  and  aggravates  all 
their  bad  effects. 

Muscular  exercise  has  the  beneficial  effect  of  increasing 
oxygenation  and  of  promoting  assimilative  processes.  Not 
only  is  the  removal  of  superfluous  tissue  thereby  favored, 
but  the  nutrition  of  the  entire  body  is  improved  as  well. 
Under  exercise  that  is  suitable  and  in  no  way  excessive, 
the  perfect  condition  of  all  the  organs  of  the-  body  is  best 
maintained.  Hence,  gentle  exercise  is  in  general  healthful. 
Moderate  exercise  not  only  improves  the  condition 
and  appearance  of  the  skin,  but  enables  it  also  to  become 
a  more  efficient  aid  to  the  casting  off,  in  the  sweat,  of  vari- 
ous waste  matters.  All  muscular  exertion  causes  the  heart 
to  increase  the  number  of  beats  and  at  each  beat  to 
drive  more  blood  through  the  entire  system.  Excessive 
exercise  and  "  athleticism  "  tend  to  injure  the  heart  and 
other  organs,  and  are  accordingly  harmful.  One  of  the 
greatest  dangers,  if  not  the  greatest  danger  of  injudicious 
exercise,  is  its  tendency  to  induce  more  or  less  serious  heart 
diseases.  Muscular  activity  that  is  irregular  and  immod- 
erate is  most  apt  to  produce  these  disorders.  Exercise  that 
goes  beyond  the  limits  of  beginning  fatigue  is  especially 
unhealthful  when  organic  disease  exists. 

Carefully  managed  physical  exercise  can  do  much  to  de- 


EFFECT    OF    IMMODERATE    EXERCISE  73 

velop  the  muscular  system,  and  in  a  less  degree  it  increases 
the  quality  and  power  of  other  organs.  The  lungs  may  be 
specified  as  illustrating  this  to  a  certain  extent.  Yet  the 
heart,  on  the  other  hand,  permits  only  a  very  limited  increase 
in  the  amount  of  its  regular  work.  If  the  strain  put  upon  the 
heart  be  considerable,  a  diseased  condition  is  quite  certain 
to  result,  and  other  organs  may  be  affected  as  well. 

Unusual  and  excessive  exercise,  especially  on  the 
part  of  a  person  of  sedentary  habits,  may  cause  acute  dilata- 
tion of  the  heart,  as  AUbutt  and  others  have  demonstrated. 
Yet  nature  will  usually  relieve  this,  and  the  derangement 
may  entirely  disappear  if  the  case  be  properly  treated. 
This  almost  invariably  means  that  we  must  allow  complete 
rest  for  a  time.  If,  however,  such  warning  pass  unheeded 
and  excessive  exercise  be  persisted  in,  that  very  often  pro- 
duces incurable  heart  troubles.  Athleticism  is  frequently 
harmful  because  of  the  undesirable  incitements  to  strain 
and  overdo.  Athletes  are  often  of  less  well-balanced  phy- 
sical health  than  they  appear  to  be.  Professional  athletes 
and  prize-fighters  may  be  no  more  given  to  alcoholic  and 
other  excesses  than  are  the  average  of  the  class  from  which 
they  come.  Yet  they  are  very  often  short-lived  and  apt  to 
reveal  a  marked  physical  deterioration  at  a  time  of  early 
middle  life  when  others  are  in  the  fullest  realization  of 
their  best  health    and   vital  energies. 

Even  among  horses,  and  other  animals  that  are  bred 
with  the  utmost  selective  care  to  insure  the  highest  possible 
excellence  of  organic  adjustment,  death  from  a  giving  way 
of  the  heart  under  strain  is  not  exceedingly  uncommon. 
Average  human  beings  are  not  as  a  rule  endowed  with  such 
perfect  physical  balance  and  condition  of  all  the  organs  of 
the  body  that  they  can  with  impunity  struggle  for  athletic 
prizes.  Every  one  has  limitations  beyond  which  it  is  unsafe 
to  go.  In  some,  the  limits  of  safety  are  reached  much 
sooner  than  in  others. 


74  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE 

Heredity  counts  for  very  much  In  the  matter  of 
physical  capabilities.  The  descendant  of  a  strong  race  is 
in  general  fairly  well  qualified  for  severe  exertion.  If  such 
a  person  develops  great  muscular  strength,  the  nerves, 
heart  and  other  organs  are  better  adapted  to  work  in  per- 
fect harmony  with  the  powerful  muscles.  Despite  all  this, 
weaklings  can,  by  judicious  and  unremitting  application, 
develop  superb  muscles.  The  author  has  known  a  num- 
ber of  such  cases.  One  of  them  was  the  physical  marvel 
of  his  time,  and — although  of  slight  frame — was  regarded 
by  all  as  the  strongest  man  in  the  world.  His  heart  and 
blood-vessels  failed  him  suddenly,  and  he  died  about  thirty 
years  earlier  than  he  presumably  would,  had  he  not  aimed 
at  more  than  the  moderate  muscular  development  best 
adapted  for  the  average  person. 

Proper  and  regular  exercise  of  an  organ  causes  in- 
crease in  the  size,  quality  and  power  of  that  portion  of  the 
body.  Conversely,  an  organ  is  weakened  by  disuse.  Yet 
very  mild  exercise  serves  to  maintain  the  healthy  nutrition 
of  a  part.  A  muscle  that  has  been  exercised  until  it  is 
greatly  hypertrophied,  tends  to  degenerate  when  the  exer- 
cise is  no  longer  maintained.  Just  as  it  is  in  all  cases  de- 
sirable to  be  very  slow  in  the  gradual  working  up  to  a  high 
degree  of  muscular  development,  so  it  is  well  not  to  lapse  at 
once  into  sedentary  or  indolent  disuse  of  the  muscles.  After 
a  period  of  prolonged  preparation  for  extreme  muscular 
effort,  it  is  wisest  not  to  abandon  absolutely  the  habit  of 
exercising.  Spasmodic  and  irregular  exercise  is  inferior  to 
that  which  is  in  every  way  uniform. 

Dr.  Morgan's  well-known  book  on  "  University  Oars  " 
showed  that  the  picked  men,  who  had  been  selected  from 
the  best  material  in  the  two  leading  English  universities  for 
a  number  of  years,  appeared  usually  to  have  come  out  of 
the  annual  races  without  any  serious  injury.  Yet  such  men 
would  be  very  certain  to  have  inherited  strong  constitutions 


ATHLETIC    STRUGGLES 


75 


and  finely  balanced  systems  capable  of  enduring  strain  with- 
out serious  injury.  Civilized  life  had  not  deprived  them  of 
the  stronger  qualities  of  the  more  primitive,  physical  type 
of  mankind.  Those  who  have  organic  defects  of  heart, 
nerves,  or  any  other  important  part  of  the  body,  ought  al- 
ways to  be  debarred  from  attempting  such  competitive 
athletic  exercises. 

While  all  independent  struggles  and  successful  overcom- 
ing of  hardships  are  most  invaluable  instruments  in  the 
formation  of  character,  it  is  not  to  be  admitted  in  a  hygienic 
treatise  that  the  most  popular  athletic  contests  are  as  a  rule 
beneficial  to  the  participants.  To  the  spectators,  the  con- 
test may  have  been  of  service  in  getting  them  out-of-doors 
and  inducing  them  to  breathe  a  little  more  fresh  air  (on 
their  way  to  the  arena)  than  would  otherwise  have  been  the 
case.  The  chill  of  a  November  day  causes  the  prolonged 
attendance  upon  a  foot-ball  match  game  to  involve  some 
risk  to  the  health  of  tlie  onlookers.  For  those  who  are  con- 
testing in  the  game  it  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  the  most 
beneficial  of  exercises.  The  following  lines  are  quoted 
(with  omission  of  names)  from  one  of  the  leading,  non-sen- 
sational New  York  daily  newspapers  of  last  autumn.  At 
that  season  several  accounts  of  somewhat  the  same  sub- 
stance appeared  every  week  and  after  nearly  every  game  : 

"  The   game  was  a  good  one.     J.  was  ruled  off   for    slugging,  W. 

taking  his  place.     Capt.  D.,  of  the team,  had  a  bad  scalp  wound, 

and  ten  minutes  were  lost  while  it  was  sewed  up,  after  which  he  pluck- 
ily  continued  the  play.  S.  sprained  his  ankle  severely  and  had  to  be 
helped  from  the  field,  C.  succeeding  him  ;  and  B.  was  stunned  in  a 
wedge  rush,  and  L.  took  his  place.  Such  minor  matters  as  bleeding 
noses  and  flesh  cuts  were  not  counted,  and  both  teams  were  like 
Comanche  Indians  in  their  war  paint  when  the  game  was  over." 
"There  has  not  been  a  game  played  in  this  neighborhood  within  a 
year  of  any  importance  where  there  have  not  been  from  one  to  half  a 
dozen  men  injured." 

Physical  exercise  is  a  most  valuable  and  almost  indispens- 
able means  of  preserving  the  health  ;  yet  all  excesses  are 


76  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE 

harmful.  Exercise  should  cause  a  moderate  use  of  many- 
muscles,  in  a  proper  attitude  of  the  body  and  amid  health- 
ful surroundings.  The  thereby  increased  activity  of  the  vital 
processes  is  most  healthful  when  the  exercise  is  as  regu- 
lar as  is  consistent  with  interest.  That  in  the  open  air 
is  best ;  and  when  it  is  enjoyable  and  involves  a  slight 
effort  of  the  mind,  the  purpose  of  recreation  is  well  fulfilled. 

Manual  ^vork  of  all  kinds,  and  especially  out-of-door 
work,  offers  great  opportunities  for  excellent  exercise.  It 
should  not  be  excessive.  Even  if  it  become  drudgery,  the 
work  that  the  muscles  perform  tends  usually  to  improve  the 
general  health.  The  superb  health  of  the  more  favored 
and  temperate  laborers  shows  the  value  of  such  exercise. 
For  most  children,  instruction  in  such  work  as  gardening  is 
of  great  value.  In  the  guise  of  play,  the  child  is  thereby 
taught  wonderful  secrets  of  nature,  the  faculties  are  trained, 
and  there  is  besides  the  satisfaction  of  having  achieved 
something.  The  muscular  exercise  of  such  play-work  is  of 
great  importance.  Especially  should  the  young  be  taught 
a  proper  position  of  the  body  in  all  exercises.  Labor  with 
the  most  plebeian  utensils  is  consistent  with  perfection  of 
form  and  figure  if  only  one  be  caused  always  to  hold  the 
body  rightly. 

Out-of-door  life  and  activity  not  only  furnish  the  best 
means  of  recreation  for  sedentary  workers,  but  also  are  most 
healthful  and  desirable  for  all.  Children  particularly  need 
such  exercise,  and  it  is  indispensable  as  a  means  of  renew- 
ing and  improving  the  vitality  of  those  who  study  much. 
Vigorous  out-of-door  play  in  childhood  develops  moral  and 
intellectual  qualities  and  is  an  all-important  aid  in  fitting 
one  for  fighting  later  in  that  fierce  struggle  for  life  that 
nearly  all  have  to  face.  The  restless  energy  of  youthful 
years  needs  such  means  for  its  exercise  and  discipline. 

All  proper  sports  are  good  for  children.  Even  foot- 
ball does  not  endanger  life  and  health  among  boys  as  do 


PROPER   OUT-DOOR    SPORTS 


77 


the  match  games  of  those  who  have  reached  the  stature  and 
years  of  manhood  and  are  struggling  in  fierce  rivalry.  Yet 
a  judicious  supervision  should  be  exercised.  Competitive 
struggles  are  not  to  be  favored  when  the  exercise  is  thereby 
made  an  end  rather  than  a  mere  means  of  maintaining 
health.  Weakly  children  that  have  defective  organs  must 
not  be  allowed  to  be  drawn  into  the  severer  exercises  of 
their  robust  school-fellows.  A  run  which  is  invigorating  for 
one  can  be  dangerous  for  another. 

Young  children,  boys  and  girls  alike,  are  to  be  en- 
couraged in  their  play  and  taught  how  best  to  exercise  ;  yet 
such  guidance  should  never  be  made  irksome  to  them. 
Skilful  instructors  can  make  this  teaching  interesting.  In 
swimming,  rowing,  military  drill  (with  very  light  guns), 
riding  and  in  every  other  kind  of  play-exercise,  there  are 
both  good  and  bad  ways  of  doing  such  things.  Most  im- 
portant is  it  that  only  proper  methods  be  taught.  Slouchy 
ways  and  lack  of  ease  in  gait  and  manner  can  be  amended 
by  training.  The  clothing  should  be  suitable  and  loose 
about  the  neck,  chest  and  elsewhere.  This  applies  to 
women  and  girls  as  well  as  to  males. 

Games  and  sports  are  most  beneficial  when  away  from 
dusty  rooms  or  streets.  Places  where  crowds  gather  are  less 
healthful  than  open  country  or  parks  having  a  well-drained 
soil.  If  contests  take  place  in  an  enclosed  space  where 
many  gather  to  look  on  as  well  as  to  exercise,  street  dirt,  at 
times  very  unclean,  is  brought  in  more  or  less  abundantly  on 
shoes  and  clothing.  Germs  of  disease  that  may  chance  to 
be  present  in  such  street-dirt  are  more  dangerous  than  any 
bad  air  that  may,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  be  present. 

This  lack  of  extreme  cleanliness  constitutes  one  of 
the  main  objections  that  may  be  urged  against  gymnasiums. 
The  increased  respiratory  action  of  the  lungs,  when  the  mus- 
cles are  being  exercised,  causes  such  disease-germs  as  are 
present  in  the  inhaled  dust,  to  come  into  very  extensive  con- 


78  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE 

tact  with  the  delicate  lung  surfaces.  Hence  all  parts  of  a 
gymnasium  should  often  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  the 
nature  of  the  work  done  there  of  course  requires  free  venti- 
lation and  abundant  sunlight. 

Gymnasiums  are  patronized  quite  extensively  in  our 
cities,  where  open-air  exercise  is  not  available  because  of 
the  great  size  of  a  city  and  because  of  unfavorable  weather. 
When  the  colder  months  of  the  year  allow  neither  the  sports 
and  open-air  recreations  of  winter  nor  those  of  warmer 
months,  gymnastic  facilities  are  of  most  value.  Where 
only  gentle  exercise  is  taken,  such  as  is  adapted  to  the 
constitution  and  capabilities  of  the  subject,  much  good 
results.  A  competent  instructor  is  of  extreme  value  in  such 
cases.  Classes  for  exercising  are  very  good  if  care  be  taken 
that  the  powers  of  the  weakest  member  be  in  no  wise  over- 
taxed. A  careful  medical  examination  should  be  made 
before  one  begins  a  systematic  training  or  enters  upon 
severe  gymnastic  work.  Any  restriction  from  the  free 
drinking  of  water  is  not  to  be  commended  in  methods  of 
training. 

The  error  in  regarding  excessive  muscularity  as  equiv- 
alent to  health  has  already  been  indicated.  Exercises  that 
are  regular  and  do  not  strain  are  best.  Many  exercisers 
are  led  to  believe  that  the  development  of  big  muscles 
is  the  result  most  to  be  desired.  In  this  they  are  almost 
always  influenced  by  the  person  in  charge  of  the  gymnasium. 
This  is  partly  due  to  interested  motives,  but  is  largely 
because  a  limited  specialist  is  not  apt  to  have  accurate 
views. 

Elaborate  apparatus  exists  in  every  complete  gymna- 
sium. By  the  use  of  these  appliances,  almost  any  muscles 
can  be  systematically  developed.  Heavy  weights  are  rarely 
to  be  advised.  The  customary  mattresses  and  also  nets 
should  be  used  to  guard  against  danger  from  falling  where 
any  perilous  feats  are  attempted.     In   general,   multiplicity 


EXERCISING    WITH    RINGS  79 

and  complexity  of  apparatus  is  undesirable  as  far  as  the 
hygienic  value  of  a  gymnasium  is  concerned.  The  instruc- 
tor is  of  more  importance  than  the  appliances. 

Very  simple  apparatus  answers  every  purpose  of  the 
gentle  exercise  conducive  to  high  general  health.  Even  if 
one  desire  to  develop  the  body  so  as  to  surpass  all  others 
in  muscular  strength,  the  most  crude  and  elementary  appli- 
ances are  quite  sufficient.  A  household  gymnasium  room 
should  have  a  few  dumb-bells.  Hanging  rings  are  the  most 
valuable  single  apparatus  of  all.  Two  rings,  six  inches  or 
more  in  diameter,  are  held  above  the  level  of  the  eyes  by 
two  ropes  not  more  than  twenty  inches  apart.  These  ropes 
are  securely  fastened  above  into  strong  beams  in  the  ceil- 
ing. Such  rings  afford  healthful  exercise  for  all,  from  the 
frailest,  weak-chested  child  to  the  consummate  athlete.  The 
latter,  however,  by  using  them  for  extreme  muscular  exer- 
tions similar  to  those  of  the  "parallel  bar,"  is  apt  to  develop 
the  upper  back  muscles  to  excess  and  to  produce  the  sem- 
blance of  round-shoulderedness,  as  Lagrange  has  pointed 
out.  Even  in  early  childhood  the  head  should  never  be 
allowed  to  hang  downward.  In  middle  life  and  later  the 
effects  of  this  are  serious  at  times. 

For  exercising  the  abdominal  muscles,  so  as  to  re- 
duce corpulency  or  to  prevent  it,  such  hanging  rings  are  of 
value,  the  body  being  suspended  by  grasping  these  rings. 
While  the  body  is  thus  held  up,  the  lower  limbs  are  brought 
to  a  right  angle  with  the  trunk.  Then  they  are  allowed  to 
drop  to  their  former  place.  These  movements  are  slowly 
repeated  several  times.  Most  surgeons  recommend  the  use 
of  such  rings  for  those  wishing  to  use  natural  means  that 
shall  prevent  hernia.  The  belly  muscles  are  certainly 
strengthened  by  such  exercise.  For  women,  children  and 
the  weakly,  the  strengthening  and  exercise  of  the  chest  and 
of  the  above  indicated  muscles,  as  well  as  of  others  that 
these  hanging  rings  call  into  activity,  are  very  valuable. 


8o  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE 

One  need  not  swing  with  them  nor  make  any  but  the  sHght- 
est  efforts  to  raise  the  body. 

Walking  is  the  most  important  and  valuable  of  all  ex- 
ercises. It  certainly  is  so  when  the  term  is  understood  to 
include  brisk  walking.  Running  is  practically  only  a  some- 
what severer  form  of  the  same  sort  of  exercise.  Walking 
exercises  the  muscles  of  other  parts  than  the  legs.  The 
loins,  the  back  and  even  the  chest  and  arms  are  somewhat 
exercised  in  walking.  This  is  less  the  case  than  in  special 
exercise  adapted  for  the  upper  parts  of  the  body ;  yet  it 
amounts  to  more  than  most  persons  realize.  That  the  action 
of  the  heart  is  thereby  somewhat  increased,  and  that  the 
lungs  are  exercised  much  more  actively,  even  in  an  easy 
walk,  than  when  the  body  is  at  rest,  are  facts  obvious  to  all. 

In  a  brisk  walk,  the  amount  of  air  inspired  and  of  the 
carbonic  acid  gas  that  is  given  off  from  the  body  may  be 
three  times  as  great  as  when  one  is  at  complete  rest.  In 
walking  up  a  steep  rise  of  ground,  the  exercise  is  still  more 
severe.  As  is  well  known,  this  causes  us  to  "  lose  our 
breath."  That  means  that  the  muscles  are  producing  more 
carbonic  acid  gas  than  the  lungs  can  at  the  immediate 
moment  remove  from  the  blood  that  is  in  them.  By  resting 
from  these  too  severe  efforts,  we  "catch  the  breath,"  and, 
the  exercise  being  moderated,  the  lungs  are  again  enabled 
to  work  well.  Under  the  influence  of  exercise,  the  lung- 
power  tends  to  improve  ;  and  exercise  of  the  lungs,  by 
such  gradually  increasing  but  moderate  muscular  activity 
as  is  afforded  by  carefully  regulated  walking,  forms  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  open-air  treatment  of  lung  disease. 

Walking  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  exercises,  be- 
cause it  is  usually  not  severe  and  yet  is  a  fairly  sufficient 
exercise  for  all  persons  of  all  ages.  It  moreover  is  less 
liable  to  involve  excess  than  other  exercise  ;  and  it  has  the 
great  merit  of  being  always  available  and  so  simple  and  of 
necessity  so  connected  with  our  daily  life  that  all  must  with 


EASY    WALKING  8l 

some  regularity  employ  this  healthful  muscular  exertion  to 
a  certain  extent,  however  indolent  they  be.  Many,  it  must 
be  admitted,  somewhat  successfully  shirk  even  this  exercise. 
Yet  it  is  the  one  that  involves  so  little  loss  of  time  in  prep- 
aration, as  compared  with  other  kinds  of  physical  activity, 
that  the  number  of  the  enlightened  who  neglect  it  is  very 
small  indeed.  This  statement  is  not  strictly  correct  as  re- 
gards the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  and  western  parts  of 
our  country.  Where  the  influence  of  the  Latin  races  has 
wholly  or  in  part  dominated  the  civilization  of  the  warmer 
portions  of  our  continent,  it  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  make 
the  natives  realize  that  walking  does  not  necessarily  mean 
either  extreme  poverty  or  a  deranged  brain. 

Children  ought  to  be  taught  to  walk  well.  The  gait 
should  be  graceful,  and  at  the  same  time  the  effort  must  be 
as  slight  as  possible.  In  all  walking,  an  erect  but  easy  car- 
riage of  the  body  is  desirable.  The  shoulders  need  invaria- 
bly to  be  held  well  back,  even  though  the  body  be  bent 
forward  as  is  usual  in  mountain  climbing.  The  step  should 
be  firm  and  even  ;  at  the  same  time  it  ought  to  be  elastic 
and  gliding.  The  toes  should  point  forward  or  slightly 
outward.  Extreme  "  toeing  out  "  is,  like  "  toeing  in,"  to 
be  avoided.  The  arms  are  not  to  be  worked  vigorously, 
and  a  graceful  walk,  to  use  the  language  of  a  ballet-master, 
"  does  not  call  for  any  movement  on  the  part  of  the  neck 
or  of  the  waist."  Indeed,  the  most  graceful  natural  walk, 
that  of  the  women  of  some  portions  of  middle  Italy,  is  pos- 
sible with  rigid  neck  while  considerable  burdens  are  carried 
upon  the  head.  Some  observers  regard  the  carrying  of 
burdens  upon  the  head  as  a  valuable  means  of  rendering 
the  walk  more  graceful  and  of  improving  the  figure. 

Such  an  easy  walk  is  to  be  commended  not  only  from 
an  artistic  point  of  view  but  from  the  utilitarian  standpoint 
as  well.  With  an  easy  gait  one  can  cover  more  ground  than 
with  a  clumsy  one.     This  is  said  in  full  recognition  of  the 


S2  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE 

fact  that  some  professional  pedestrians  have  not  a  graceful 
gait. 

Walking,  like  running,  can  be  overdone,  and  then,  like  all 
excessive  exercise,  can  cause  harm.  Mountain  climbing 
must  not  be  undertaken  without  preliminary  and  gradual 
preparation.  This  applies  especially  to  people  of  sedentary 
occupation.  If  such  persons,  wholly  out  of  training,  at- 
tempt to  ascend  high  mountains  they  often  suffer  from  the 
extreme  and  unusual  effort. 

Swimming  in  clear  waters,  that  are  not  chilly,  furnishes 
a  splendid  exercise.  In  summer  it  is  an  ideal  recreation  ; 
for,  besides  affording  a  pleasurable  and  purifying  bath,  it 
exercises  many  muscles,  and  the  increase  of  body-heat  pro- 
duced by  this  muscular  activity  is  at  the  same  time  removed 
by  the  cool  water.  The  chief  danger  to  the  health  is  that 
of  remaining  so  long  in  the  water  as  to  become  chilled. 
The  possibility  of  drowning  must  of  course  be  counted 
among  the  dangers  of  imprudent  bathing.  Those  who  can- 
not swim  run  great  risks  by  bathing  near  deep  waters.  Sea- 
faring men  and  others  are  frequently  drowned  within  a  few 
strokes  of  shore,  solely  because  of  having  neglected  to  ac- 
quire the  easy  art  of  swimming. 

The  practical  value  of  learning  in  childhood  how  to  swim 
is  obvious.  While  such  knowledge  may  occasionally  cause 
the  foolhardy  to  risk  their  lives  quite  unnecessarily,  the 
instances  of  that  are  very  few  indeed  compared  with  the 
cases  of  advantage  coming  from  an  ability  to  move  the 
body  through  the  water  or  to  keep  afloat  when  overboard. 
Swimming  is  not  only  a  most  manly  exercise,  but  should  be 
learned  by  girls  as  well  as  by  boys.  It  exercises  the  shoulder 
muscles  considerably.  This  is  important  for  women  who 
desire  handsome  arms  and  shoulders.  However  plump  a 
woman  may  be,  the  outlines  of  the  body  are  always  better 
when  the  muscles  beneath  are  fairly  well  developed. 

Rowing  is  a  very  valuable  and  agreeable  exercise.     Be- 


OPEN-AIR    EXERCISE  83 

sides  having  the  advantage  of  being  a  fresh-air  recreation 
like  all  forms  of  boating,  rowing  in  fair  style  (with  shoulders 
and  head  well  back  and  arms  and  back  straight)  involves 
the  exercise  of  many  muscles.  Where  one  person  uses  two 
oars,  one  in  either  hand  (the  oars  in  that  case  being  called 
"sculls  "  by  the  English  and  by  some  Americans),  rowing  is 
a  very  healthful  and  symmetrical  exercise.  If  a  boat  is  suit- 
ably shaped,  it  is  extremely  safe.  Even  on  the  ocean  and 
in  storms  that  shatter  and  wreck  great  ships,  a  properly 
built  small  boat  rowed  by  a  skilled  man  is  quite  safe  as  far 
as  danger  from  the  waves  is  concerned.  Whenever  a  row- 
boat  by  any  chance  becomes  capsized,  a  slight  knowledge 
of  swimming  will  enable  one  to  get  back  to  the  boat,  which 
of  course  cannot  sink  if  built  of  wood  and  not  weighted 
with  metal  or  stone. 

Canoeing  is  inferior  to  rowing  as  an  exercise,  although 
it  has  the  advantage  of  allowing  one  to  face  forward  while 
propelling  the  little  craft.  The  ordinary  canoe  is  very  frail 
and  "  cranky  "  when  sailed,  and  gives  an  inferior  muscular 
exercise  because  of  the  comparatively  limited  hygienic  value 
of  the  use  of  the  double-bladed  paddle.  Birch  canoes  and 
their  imitations  afford  a  very  good  means  of  exercise  for 
the  upper  part  of  the  body,  although  not  advisable  for  the 
weakly.  The  shoulders  should  be  held  well  back.  The 
single  paddle  is.  to  be  used  for  a  time  on  one  side  of  the 
canoe  and  then  for  a  while  on  the  other  side.  The  knack 
of  twisting  the  paddle  is,  like  the  skill  of  the  gondolier,  not 
easily  to  be  understood  by  a  description  in  a  few  words.  It 
is  readily  acquired,  however,  by  observing  a  paddler  and  by 
practice.  Yet,  for  all  but  the  expert,  a  canoe  is  an  unsafe 
craft. 

Skating  is  an  exhilarating  and  fascinating  exercise  for 
cold  weather.  It  involves  vigorous  use  of  many  muscles  and 
promotes  activity  of  the  lungs.  It  is  especially  healthful 
because  of  the  abundance  of  pure  air  and  absence  of  dust 


$4  PHYSICAL    EXERCISE 

that  accompany  its  practice  outside  of  rinks.  The  dangers 
(and  discomforts)  that  belong  to  skating  (and  roller-skating) 
need  not  be  spoken  of  here  in  detail.  As  people  often 
break  through  the  ice,  it  is  proper  to  mention  here  that  a 
long  rope,  stretched  so  that  the  middle  is  over  the  hole  in 
the  ice  while  each  end  is  held  at  a  safe  distance  from  the 
place  of  danger,  affords  a  means  of  rescuing  the  unlucky 
skater  who  is  in  the  icy  water.  Planks  may  also  be  run  out 
over  the  ice.  Since,  however,  lives  are  at  times  lost  because 
the  victim  of  such  an  accident  is  held  under  ice-surfaces, 
the  very  simple  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  ii  is  recommended. 
It  does  not  seem  to  be  known  in  this  coun- 
try. Its  use  was  illustrated  to  the  author 
some  years  ago  by  Baron  Esmarch,  then  in 
charge  of  the  Hygienic  Museum  in  Berlin. 
The  essential  part  is  a  wooden  sphere,  like  a 
medium-sized  nine-pin  ball,  made  of  maple 
or  more  buoyant  wood.  A  long  (manila) 
rope  is  attached  to  this  by  an  iron  semi- 

FlG.  II.  .        ^        r  ,    •     1  •  1  1 

circle  from  which  two  pins  enter  the  wooden 
sphere.  One  pin  being  in  either  end  of  the  axis  of  this 
ball,  it  rotates  freely.  By  its  weight,  the  ball  serves  to 
break  ice  upon  which  it  is  thrown  from  a  distance.  Float- 
ing on  the  water,  it  enables  the  victim  of  the  accident  to 
catch  the  light,  strong  rope,  and  thereby  to  be  rescued. 

Tennis  is  a  deservedly  popular  game.  Women,  how- 
ever, should  be  careful  to  avoid  too  great  indulgence  in  this 
beautiful  pastime.  Like  all  one-handed  games,  it  is  most 
useful  as  an  exercise  when  the  left  hand  is  at  times  used 
instead  of  the  right.  This  alternate  exercise,  however 
clumsy,  is  best.  Sprains,  fractures  and  internal  displace- 
ments result  from  too  active  devotion  to  the  exercise, 
especially  when  one  is  out  of  training.  On  wet  ground 
(especially  turf)  tennis  may  be  dangerous. 

Jumping  rope  ("  skipping  rope")  is  a  fairly  good  exer- 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE  85 

cise  for  girls.     Used  in  moderation,  it  is  not  so  harmful  for 
healthy  people  as  it  is  sometimes  said  to  be. 

Baseball  is  a  less  perfect  exercise  than  football  or  vari- 
ous other  games.  Cricket  is  somewhat  preferable.  Foot- 
ball, as  already  said,  is  a  fine  exercise  if  not  carried  too 
far.     Then  it  may  be  perilous. 

Fencing,  like  sword-play  in  general,  tends  to  cause 
lateral  curvature  of  the  spine,  especially  in  the  immature, 
as  Lagrange  has  shown.  This  great  defect  is  due  to  the 
necessarily  one-armed  nature  of  the  exercise.  It  is  how- 
ever a  useful  occasional  exercise  of  eye,  nerve,  muscles  and 
other  organs.  Sabre  practice  seems  more  valuable  as  an 
exercise  than  fencing. 

Boxing  serves  to  exercise  the  muscles  and  other  organs, 
but  is  hedged  about  by  such  drawbacks  that  one  cannot 
recommend  it.  Even  though  this  is  claimed  to  be  a  "  manly 
art  of  self-defence,"  it  is  quite  the  usage  for  the  assertive 
but  not  very  beneficially  productive  classes,  that  are  most 
conversant  with  this  exercise,  to  resort  to  "  self-cocking  re- 
volvers "  and  other  technically  unfair  means  of  settling 
their  frequent  altercations. 

Riding  spirited  horses,  although  in  nearly  every  respect 
hygienically  inferior  to  proper  walking  as  an  exercise, 
induces  about  the  same  extent  of  muscular  action,  and 
causes  the  lungs  to  throw  off  nearly  as  much  carbonic  acid 
gas  as  comes  from  them  when  one  is  walking.  Even  under 
the  artificial  conditions  in  which  it  is  used  in  cities,  riding 
affords  a  commendable  exercise,  especially  for  the  capri- 
cious, the  indolent  and  the  gluttonous.  It  requires  more 
preparation  than  most  exercise,  and  so,  many  of  those  who 
take  it  up  are  liable  to  use  it  only  irregularly  and  to  abandon 
it  before  very  long.  It  is  not  so  desirable  for  weak  girls  or 
boys  as  for  men  and  women  who  are  passing  middle  life. 
The  usual  (one-sided)  side-saddle  position  is  not  hygieni- 
cally the  best.     The    distinguished   London   surgeon,  Mr. 


S6  PHYSICAL    KXERCISE 

Treves,  in  mentioning  some  of  the  physical  defects  that 
riding  causes  besides  round  shoulders  in  "  weedy  "  children, 
says  that  "  lateral  curvature  of  the  spine  is  certainly  often 
induced  and  fostered  by  riding."  Various  English  and 
other  anatomists  and  physicians  have  called  attention  to 
the  troubles  of  the  lower  part  of  the  body  due  to  riding 
and  have  stated  that  parturition  may  be  more  difficult 
among  women  who  ride  much. 

Bicycling  is  in  general  more  valuable,  yet  tamer  and 
much  less  dangerous  than  horseback  exercise.  Mishaps 
may  occur  with  it  at  times,  and  involve  local  or  general 
injury.  The  fascination  of  the  easy  and  swift  machines, 
which  hopelessly  distance  all  horses  in  combined  speed  and 
endurance,  is  great.  Yet  this  causes  over-exercising  and 
strain,  especially  if  one  has  to  ride  far  against  a  strong 
wind.  Only  "  safety  "  machines  should  be  used.  One  can 
learn  their  use  in  four  or  five  half-hour  lessons  ;  yet  at 
least  a  dozen  rides  are  required  before  sufficient  facility  is 
acquired. 

Hills  are  very  severe  obstacles  for  the  beginner.  One 
should  not  hesitate  to  walk  up  steep  places  and  push  the 
bicycle.  In  a  long  tour,  this  is  very  desirable  as  a  change 
from  the  monotonous  movements.  The  "  gearing  "  of  the 
machine  must  be  adjusted  to  the  individual  and  according 
to  the  character  of  the  country  to  be  traversed.  The  ball 
of  the  foot  touching  the  treadle  (or  "  pedal  "),  when  at  its 
lowest  in  working  the  machine,  should  be  slightly  lower 
than  the  heel,  although  professionals  do  not  all  indorse 
this  recommendation.  Light  leather  shoes  are  best.  The 
clothing  should  be  light  but  elastic.  Woollen  materials 
best  answer  the  purpose.  A  light  jacket  should  be  carried 
for  preventing  chill  if  the  rider  is  to  rest  on  the  way.  The 
danger  of  "  catching  cold  "  or  acquiring  rheumatic  or  other 
ailment  is  considerable  if,  after  exercising,  one  neglect  to 
remove  at  once  the  clothes  that  are  wet  with  perspiration. 


OPEN-AIR    EXERCISE  87 

Bicycling  exercises  many  muscles  besides  those  of  ttie 
lower  limbs.  The  most  improved  machines  cause  much 
less  trouble  from  vibration  than  was  the  case  with  the 
older  bicycles.  Yet  even  the  best  pneumatic  tires  do  not 
entirely  obviate  this  defect.  Therein  lies  one  of  the  draw- 
backs of  the  useful  exercise.  The  main  danger  is  in  the 
tendency  to  overdo.  Competitive  strain  is  here,  as  in  other 
exercise,  apt  to  prove  pernicious.  "  Record-breaking  "  is 
a  dangerous  incentive.  For  those  who  have  hernia  or  any 
other  disease  than  mild  forms  of  rheumatism,  bicycling 
seems  unsuited.  Although  presumably  irritative  of  the 
perineal  organs,  especially  when  one  bends  forward  in  the 
usual  unsightly  and  unhealthful  manner,  it  may  be  said  that 
bicycling  is  regarded  by  physicians  as  relieving  rather  than 
aggravating  hemorrhoidal  troubles. 

The  general  opinion  among  practitioners  of  medicine  and 
the  leading  medical  journals  appears  to  be  that  bicycling 
is  not  an  exercise  that  one  should  recommend  to  women. 
The  tricycle  is  preferable.  Both  these  exercising  machines 
are  an  artificial  constraint  in  that  they  require  one  to 
keep  on  quite  level,  smooth  and  usually  dusty  roads.  They 
are  not  so  easy  to  transport  as  they  seem,  and  they  do  not 
allow  that  intimate  contact  with  nature  that  comes  from 
tramping  in  rugged  and  wild  country.  Their  use  is  limited 
by  season,  wind  and  weather.  The  majority  of  those  who 
follow  bicycling  with  great  enthusiasm  at  first  tend  gradually 
to  lose  their  interest  in  the  exercise.  So,  after  this  and  all 
other  artificial  exercises  are  discarded,  walking  remains  as 
the  one  necessary  exercise  that  is  also  the  most  healthful 
of  all. 


SCHOOLS,    AND    THEIR    INFLUENCE   ON 
HEALTH 

The  prosperity  of  the  commonwealth  demands  not  only 
the  best  training  for  all  children,  but  requires  that  every 
possible  precaution  be  employed  to  prevent  any  impairment 
of  health  among  scholars  or  teachers.  The  ideal  of  instruc- 
tion methods  is  that  school  influences  be  such  as  will  con- 
tribute in  every  way  to  improve  the  pupil,  whether  progress 
be  measured  from  the  mental,  moral,  or  physical  stand- 
point. 

We  cannot  fail  to  recognize  that  diseases  inevitably  arise 
among  children  whether  they  attend  school  or  not.  At  the 
same  time,  it  is  very  probable  that  several  important  diseases 
would  at  any  rate  be  less  abundant,  and  perhaps  wholly 
absent,  if  schools  and  their  hygienic  management  were  of 
the  best.  In  view  of  the  hundreds  of  milHons  of  dollars 
expended  yearly  in  this  country  to  further  the  education 
and  training  of  those  who  will  become  future  citizens  and 
parents  of  citizens,  it  is  most  important  to  consider  the  chief 
features  of  school  hygiene. 

The  diseases  which  most  deserve  to  attract  attention 
because  of  their  connection  with  schools  are  :  (i)  Those 
due  to  infection  ;  (2)  those  due  to  defects  in  the  appliances, 
the  building  and  its  furnishings,  and  in  the  methods  of 
school-work. 

To  prevent  infectious  diseases,  it  is  necessarily  of  im- 
portance to  disinfect  all  objects  that  have  become  infected 
and  are  liable  to  keep  alive  or  convey  the  germs  of  disease. 
Sometimes  an  entire  school-house  has  to  be  closed  for  a 
period    and    completely   disinfected    throughout.       If    the 


IMPORTANCE    OF    CLEANLINESS  89 

building  be  faulty  in  construction,  and  "  honeycombed  "  with 
places  where  the  germs  of  disease  can  lodge  and  flourish, 
the  usual  superficial  disinfection  may  be  quite  inadequate. 

All  children  should  have  been  vacci7iated.  The  harmless- 
ness  and  value  of  vaccination  are  explained  in  the  latter 
part  of  this  book.  In  the  same  portion  will  be  found  a 
consideration  of  disinfection  processes  and  those  diseases 
spoken  of  as  infectious.  Children  that  have  communicable 
diseases  should  be  excluded  from  schools.  This  includes 
even  such  mild  (and  usually  disregarded)  disorders  as  ring- 
wor7n  (and  similar  troubles),  and  also  some  cases  of  sore 
eyes,  especially  granular  eyelids  {trachoma).  The  most 
enlightened  physicians  recognize  clearly  that  such  diseases 
are  distinctly  contagious  and  sometimes  freely  spread  from 
child  to  child  by  contact.  Many  a  "  sore  throat  "  is  a  mild 
case  of  diphtheria  that  is  unrecognized  unless  very  care- 
fully observed.  It  is  wisest  for  teachers  to  be  alert  in  such 
matters.  School  inspectors  or,  at  any  rate,  supervisors 
should  have  medical  training  made  a  necessary  qualifica- 
tion for  their  office,  and  their  decisions  should  be  accurate 
and  early  when  infectious  dangers  are  suspected. 

Systematic  teaching  of  the  principles  of  strict  cleanliness, 
and  of  the  reasons  why  neatness  is  desirable  and  why  it 
should  be  effected  in  certain  ways,  must  be  viewed  as  of 
extreme  value  to  school  children.  This  is  especially  so 
when  they  come  from  the  lowest  classes,  where  intelligent 
training  in  the  essentials  of  such  things  is  impossible  to 
them  at  home.  By  properly  teaching  them  true  cleanliness, 
they  are  made  to  acquire  ideas  which  will  cause  them  later 
to  be  more  valuable  citizens  than  if  such  practical  health 
education  be  neglected.  If  more  attention  were  given  to 
hygienic  instruction  in  schools,  it  would  be  better  for  all, 
even  though  such  instruction  restricted  the  time  to  be 
allowed  for  the  more  superfluous,  though  showy,  learning. 
School  baths,  too,  are  a  valuable  auxiliary  to  health,  and  the 


9©  SCHOOLS    AND    HEALTH 

developing  tendency  to  introduce  extensive  shower  baths 
into  public  schools  and  institutions  is  a  healthful  one.  Dis- 
regard for  personal  cleanliness,  if  persistent,  is  a  menace  to 
the  welfare  of  others,  and  should  be  a  barrier  against  the 
entrance  of  a  child  into  a  school. 

When  a  case  of  the  very  infectious  diseases  is  present  in  a 
home,  all  children  living  in  the  same  family  should  be  ex- 
cluded from  school.  It  is  well  also  to  keep  out  all  others 
who  play  with  these  children  or  come  into  contact  with 
them.  The  latest  edition  of  the  "  Manual  of  the  Board  of 
Education"  of  New  York  City  wisely  provides  that  "if  a 
contagious  disease  of  any  description  exists  on  more  than  one 
floor  of  a  tenement-house,  or  if  the  disease  existing  on  only 
one  floor  be  small-pox  or  typhus  fever,  all  children  living  in 
the  house  must  be  promptly  excluded  from  school."  In 
case  of  scarlet  fever,  they  are  then  to  be  kept  out  until  three 
weeks  after  the  beginning  of  the  last  case.  For  measles,  one 
week  less  is  required.  To  restrict  diphtheria,  such  children 
living  in  infected  houses  are  not  to  be  allowed  to  return  to 
school  till  "  one  week  after  the  termination  of  the  last  case 
on  the  floor  or  in  the  house."  It  would  be  better  if  longer 
exclusion  were  enforced.  In  case  of  other  diseases,  it  is 
best  that  children  be  excluded  who  do  not  get  medical  cer- 
tificates of  freedom  from  the  possible  infection.  Evidence, 
also,  that  disinfection  has  been  properly  carried  out  is  very 
desirable.  All  new  pupils  should  likewise  have  such  satis- 
factory health  certificates. 

A  child  that  has  had  scarlatina  is  not  to  return  to  school 
until  after  the  skin  has  entirely  ceased  scaling  off,  and  after 
all  sore  throat  and  all  other  signs  have  disappeared.  This 
requires  the  greater  part  of  two  months.  Small-pox  requires 
about  the  same  length  of  time.  So  also  does  whooping-cough. 
Measles  requires  at  least  a  month  of  exclusion,  and  erysipelas 
nearly  the  same  time.  In  all  cases,  any  scaling  must  have 
ceased.     All  the  other  eruptive  diseases,  and  also  mumps, 


COMMUNICABLE    DISEASES  9 1 

make  it  necessary  that  the  child  shall  remain  away  for  at 
least  two  weeks.  In  chicken-pox^  the  period  of  exclusion  is 
best  fixed  at  from  three  to  four  weeks.  However  mild  a 
case  of  diphtheria^  or  a  sore  throat  resembling  that  disease, 
a  child  that  has  just  had  it  should  not  return  to  school  until 
three  weeks  after  the  beginning  of  the  attack.  A  severe 
case  should  have  entirely  recovered  before  beginning  school- 
work  or  any  other  tasks.  The  same  may  be  said  regarding 
typhoid  fever.  A  more  complete  consideration  of  these  dis- 
eases will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  Infectious  Diseases. 

Tuberculosis  is  one  of  the  last  of  the  diseases  that  are 
to  be  apprehended  from  school  attendance,  if  any  kind  of 
supervision  be  maintained  and  if  care  be  taken  to  disinfect 
all  expectorations.  All  scholars  and  teachers  should  spit  only 
into  suitable  spittoons,  arranged  so  that  they  can  be  easily 
and  certainly  disinfected.  The  pupils  should  be  required 
to  use  these  spittoons  invariably,  instead  of  handkerchiefs,  to 
spit  into.  A  handkerchief,  on  which  are  dried  discharges 
from  a  ''  cold  in  the  head  "  or  other  catarrhal  conditions, 
should  not  be  moved  about  much  in  the  air.  Wherever 
feasible,  it  is  to  be  advised  in  such  cases  that  cheap  Japan- 
ese napkins  be  used  and  forthwith  thrown  into  a  suitable 
receptacle.  These  paper  napkins  can  then  be  burnt,  or  other- 
wise speedily  destroyed. 

School  buildings  should  as  a  rule  be  located  as  nearly 
as  practicable  in  the  centre  of  the  district  that  they  serve. 
Liquor-shops,  offensive  businesses  and  all  other  demoraliz- 
ing or  unhealthful  nuisances  should  if  possible  be  driven  away 
from  the  vicinity  of  a  school.  Where  statutes  exist  provid- 
ing for  this,  they  should  be  rigorously  enforced.  The  con- 
struction and  equipment  of  school  buildings  are  of  extreme 
importance.  In  our  more  crowded  cities,  too  little  recogni- 
tion is  given  to  the  hygienic  value  of  sufficient  space  in  and 
around  the  school-house.  In  any  case  it  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  all  others  about  it  by  a  considerable  distance. 


92  SCHOOLS    AND    HEALTH 

The  building  ought  not  to  be  high,  and  should  be  spacious 
within.  In  the  overcrowded  sections  of  our  largest  cities 
these  ideals  are  too  often  wholly  disregarded.  If  in  such 
situations  the  building  be  necessarily  high,  owing  to  sur- 
rounding structures,  the  lower  floor  is  hygienically  of  little 
use  for  any  school-purposes.  Play-rooms  need  to  be  well 
aired  and  light.  It  is  in  general  not  well  that  children  have 
to  climb  many  stairs.  The  staircases  should  be  easy  of 
ascent,  and  the  children  not  influenced  to  go  up  these 
rapidly.  The  older  children  should  have  the  upper  stories 
for  their  rooms,  although  this  should  not  be  at  the  expense 
of  the  younger  scholars  as  regards  suflicient  daylight. 

Northern  light  is  always  the  most  desirable,  and 
school-windows  that  look  toward  the  east  or  northeast  are 
also  good,  because  the  direct  glare  of  the  sun  will  have 
moved  sufficiently  away  before  the  time  for  the  beginning 
of  school.  Yet  in  winter  these  sides  of  a  school-building 
may  be  too  cold  unless  the  heating  and  ventilation  be  of 
the  best.  Western  exposures  are  undesirable  for  such 
schools  as  hold  session  late  in  the  afternoon.  A  southern 
exposure  is  in  general  best  for  living  rooms,  because  of  the 
healthful  influence  of  the  sun.  Yet  with  school- children 
we  have  always  particularly  to  avoid  anything  that  will 
impair  the  eyesight.  The  glare  of  the  sun  shining  upon 
the  page  or  work  of  a  scholar  or  other  worker  is  bad  for 
the  eyes.  If,  however,  curtains  or  blinds  be  used  so  as  to 
accommodate  the  child  near  the  window,  those  pupils  who 
are  in  the  further  and  darker  parts  of  the  room  receive 
insufficient  light.  A  few  authorities  recommend  a  southern 
or  western  exposure  as  being,  all  things  considered,  the 
best.     The  majority  prefer  northern  light. 

Whatever  way  the  rooms  face,  the  light  should  not  be  ma- 
terially obstructed  by  reason  of  the  nearness  of  buildings, 
trees  or  other  things  that  regularly  or  irregularly  come  be- 
tween the  work  and  the  sky.     Some  school-buildings  are 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  93 

made  long  from  east  to  west,  and  narrow  from  north  to 
south,  so  as  to  have  them  only  wide  enough  to  allow  one 
row  of  several  school-rooms  on  each  floor.  These  may  then 
be  situated  upon  the  northern  side,  while  the  southern  side  is 
taken  up  with  large,  sun-lighted  corridors.  For  warm  cli- 
mates, the  plan  is  certainly  practicable.  Whatever  the 
construction,  the  corridors  should  at  least  have  windows  at 
both  ends. 

Windows  should  reach  as  high  as  possible  up  toward  the 
ceiling  ;  for  the  light  from  the  upper  part  of  the  window  is 
the  most  valuable  and  reaches  farthest  into  the  room.  This 
light  from  the  top  of  the  window  should  not  be  wasted  by 
inserting  there  any  rounding  ornamental  wood-work  or  other 
obstruction  to  the  free  entrance  of  light.  The  sashes  should 
not  be  heavy  or  broad.  Double  windows  in  winter  are  best 
for  the  colder  portions  of  the  United  States.  They  serve 
to  keep  the  room  warmer,  and  prevent  the  light  from  being 
obstructed  by  condensation  of  moisture  out  of  the  air  in  the 
room,  as  is  so  common  in  the  form  .of  '*  frosting  "  upon 
windows  of  single  thicknesses  of  glass.  Such  frosting  acts 
like  ground-glass  to  obstruct  the  light.  The  combined  area 
of  all  the  window  surfaces  should  be  equal  to  at  least  one- 
fifth  of  the  floor  area.  The  walls,  at  the  edges  of  the  win- 
dows, should  be  splayed  or  bevelled  outward  and  inward,  so 
as  to  allow  the  greatest  possible  entrance  of  light  without 
weakening  the  construction  of  the  walls.  The  use  of  *'  bull- 
nosed  "  bricks  aids  this  purpose  somewhat.  The  lowest  parts 
of  the  windows  should  be  at  least  as  much  as  forty  inches 
above  the  floor,  and  some  recommend  that  they  be  as  high 
as  the  tops  of  the  heads  of  the  pupils.  Where  the  windows 
are  low,  as  on  the  staircases,  iron  bars  are  useful  to  prevent 
venturesome  children  from  falling  out. 

Window-shades  of  strong,  light  gray  cloth,  such  as 
is  called  "  Hollands,"  are  of  great  value  for  those  windows 
through  which  the  sun  shines.     They  should  be  upon  spring 


g^  SCHOOLS    AND    HEALTH 

rollers.  Where  window-ventilation  is  relied  upon,  and  the 
familiar  upward-  and  inward-slanting  board  be  desired  at 
the  top,  in  order  to  throw  air  into  the  room,  the  wood  of 
this  may  be  substituted  by  a  glass  pane  in  a  sash,  flush  on 
the  upper  surface.  If  kept  clean,  it  obstructs  the  light  less 
than  wood,  and  serves  to  divert  the  incoming  currents  of 
air  away  from  the  heads  of  pupils. 

Light  from  above  and  slightly  in  front  of  the  worker  is 
best,  but  is  not  commonly  to  be  had.  Usually,  the  windows 
have  to  be  relied  upon.  Then  the  light  should  come  from 
the  left.  Thus  it  does  not  dazzle  or  reflect,  as  when  from 
the  front,  and  is  not  apt  to  throw  shadows,  from  the  arms 
and  body,  upon  the  work.  For  artificial  light,  whenever 
needed  in  school-rooms,  incandescent  electric  lights  are 
best,  and  several  small  lights  are  preferable  to  single  large 
ones,  as  throwing  less  shadow. 

The  height  of  school-rooms  should  not  be  less  than 
.eleven  feet.  Fifteen  feet  is  usually  regarded  as  the  great- 
est height  that  they  should  have,  and  some  object  to  having 
the  height  of  school-rooms  more  than  fourteen  feet,  since 
they  are  apt  to  develop  an  undesirable  resonance  if  much 
higher  than  that.  The  higher  the  walls  and  windows,  the 
better  the  light.  An  oblong  shape  is  usually  preferred. 
The  width  ought  not  to  exceed  twenty-three  feet,  and  the 
length  should  not  be  greater  than  thirty  feet.  It  is  desira- 
ble that  for  each  pupil  in  a  school-room  there  be  allowed 
twenty  square  feet  of  floor  area.  Thus,  a  room  twenty- 
seven  feet  long  and  nearly  22.5  feet  wide  would  be  suited 
for  thirty-five  pupils.  Often,  however,  less  than  half  this 
floor  area  is  allowed,  as  in  places  where  careful  attention  is 
not  paid  to  the  health  of  the  pupils,  and  where  they  are 
crowded  together  because  of  niggardly  appropriations. 
This  crowding  is  especially  liable  to  occur  where  the 
teachers  are  paid  according  to  the  number  of  pupils  that 
they  have  in  charge.     For  each  average  scholar  two  hun- 


SCHOOL-ROOMS 


95 


dred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  of  air  space  should  be  allowed. 
More  than  this  is  desirable.  If  less  than  two  hundred  cubic 
feet  be  allowed,  satisfactory  ventilation  is  not,  as  a  rule, 
easily  effected. 

Floors  should  be  of  firm  hard-wood  (or  Georgia  pine), 
very  well  matched,  and  the  seams,  joints,  and  all  crevices 
filled  with  asphalt  or  other  wood  cement.  They  should  be 
oiled  two  or  three  times  a  year,  as  explained  at  length  in  the 
chapter  on  Building.  Hard-wood  laid  in  asphalt  is  recom- 
mended by  European  builders.  Where  a  cold  cellar  is  be- 
neath, the  under  side  of  the  floor  beams  should  be  sheathed. 
Otherwise  the  floor  is  dangerously  cold.  It  is  best  not  to 
have  the  cellar  cold  ;  and,  indeed,  one  of  the  first  essentials 
for  properly  warming  a  small  school-house  or  a  church  is  to 
have  the  cellar  warm  in  the  beginning  ;  but,  of  course,  only 
with  clean  air.  The  walls  of  a  school-room  to  above  the 
height  of  the  head  should  be  wainscoted  on  the  colder  sides 
of  the  room  with  wood  that  is  not  very  soft.  It  should  be 
very  smooth,  and  afford  no  place  for  the  lodgment  of  dirt. 
No  projecting  mouldings  or  other  ornamental  additions  that 
could  catch  or  hold  dirt  should  be  permitted. 

No  blackboards  should  be  between  the  windows.  Where 
there  are  blackboards  on  the  wall,  the  wood-work  should 
reach  up  to  the  lower  part  of  these.  The  walls  in  general 
above  the  wooden  wainscoting  should  be  as  smooth  as  possi- 
ble, and  of  a  light  grayish  oil-painted  surface,  thus  being 
easy  to  keep  perfectly  clean.  White  is  preferred  for  the 
ceiling,  as  reflecting  better  and  increasing  the  light  upon  the 
work  of  the  pupils.  Smooth  oil-paint  is  cleaner,  and  a 
better  reflector  of  Hght,  than  "  sand-finished  "  paint  on  ceil- 
ings ;  yet  builders  prefer  to  use  the  latter,  and  claim  that 
it  lasts  better. 

Temperatures  between  65°  F.  and  68°  F.  are  usually 
considered  best  for  school-rooms.  With  stoves  it  is  difli- 
cult  to  keep  the  heat  uniform,  especially  when  no  ventilating 


96 


SCHOOLS    AND    HEALTH 


flues  exist.  If  stoves  be  used,  and  the  size  and  location  of 
the  room  require  much  heat,  two  stoves  of  medium  size, 
and  on  opposite  sides  of  a  room,  are  better  than  one  very 
large  one.  The  stoves  ought  to  have  fresh-air  inlets  pro- 
vided.    (See  Fig.  12.)     Stoves  should  also  be '' jacketed" 

with  a  casing  or  mantle 
(as  shown  in  the  figure), 
to  allow  the  warm  air  to 
circulate  throughout  the 
room,  cooler  air  entering 
from  beneath  to  replace 
that  which  has  risen  by 
being  warmed.  This  prin- 
ciple can  also  be  em- 
ployed with  suitably  con- 
structed wood  -  burning 
stoves,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
13.  The  air  should  not 
be  kept  uncomfortably 
dry.  If  a  stove-pipe  en- 
ter into  a  chimney  on  the 
wall  of  a  school-room,  a 
ventilating  flue  opening 
should  be  introduced  at 
the  lower  part  of  the 
chimney.  This  will  draw 
bad  air  out  of  the  room  at  the  lower  part,  because  the  heat 
coming  from  the  stove-pipe  causes  an  upward  movement  of 
air  in  the  chimney.     (See  chapter  on  Ventilation.) 

A  well-managed  hot-air  furnace  gives  very  satisfactory 
heat.  Direct  steam-heating — that  is,  by  means  of  radiators 
in  the  rooms — cannot  be  commended  for  school-houses.  In- 
direct steam  heat,  as  shown  in  Fig.  23,  where  fresh  air  passes 
between  coils  of  steam-pipe,  is  equally  good  and  more  apt  to 
be  well  attended  to.     This  is  perhaps  because  it  costs  more, 


Fig 


WARMING    SCHOOL-ROOMS 


97 


and  because  a  higher  class  of  labor  is  required  to  manage 
it  than  is  considered  sufficient  for  a  furnace.  Mechanical 
means  of  insuring  ventilation,  as  well  as  the  use  of  special 
chimneys  for  the  purpose,  are  spoken  of  in  the  chapter  on 
Ventilation.    It  is  most  healthful  and  not  much  more  expen- 


AA/'^-'ffff. 


sive  to  have  an  abundant  inflow  of  air,  warmed  to  a  mod- 
erate temperature  (say,  not  much  above  ioo°  F.  where  it 
leaves  the  furnace),  suppHed  to  a  large  school-room  on  a 
cold  day,  rather  than  half  as  much  warm  air  coming  in 
heated  to  a  much  higher  temperature. 
7 


98  SCHOOLS    AND    HEALTH 

The  fresh  air,  whether  warmed  much  or  little,  should 
enter  on  the  upper  part  of  the  wall  and  leave  at  the  lower 
part.  For  each  child  in  a  school-room  there  should  be 
allowed  a  fresh-air  supply  of  no  less  than  thirty  cubic  feet 
per  minute.  To  supply  this,  large  conducting  pipes  are 
necessary  ;  for  the  average  velocity  of  air  flowing  through 
such  pipes,  as  they  are  usually  managed,  is  considerably 
less  than  three  hundred  and  sixty  feet  a  minute,  and  per- 
haps only  half  that  amount.  Hence  a  pipe,  or  the  pipes,  con- 
veying warm  air  at  the  rate  of  three  hundred  feet  a  minute 
to  a  school-room  with  fifty  pupils,  must  at  the  least  have 
a  sectional  area  of  five  square  feet.  Ventilating  through 
windows  exposes  the  children  to  draughts,  and  is  the  least 
healthful  way  of  admitting  air  to  school-rooms.  It  is  also 
the  most  uneconomical  way  in  winter. 

Cleanliness  of  the  school-room  and  school-house  in  all 
its  parts  should  be  enforced.  Mats  and  shoe-scrapers  should 
be  used  before  entering,  and  overcoats  and  street  clothing 
ought  not  to  be  brought  into  the  school-room.  Children 
should  not  have  their  feet  remain  wet  after  coming  into  the 
school-room.  Just  as  it  should  be  an  offence  for  a  child 
to  spit  on  the  floor  when  proper  spittoons  are  provided,  so 
no  paper,  particles  of  food,  or  other  dirt  should  be  allowed 
to  be  thrown  upon  the  floor.  All  portions  of  the  floor, 
walls,  and  furniture  being  as  smooth  as  possible,  much 
of  the  inevitable  dust  can  be  removed  by  mops  that  are 
slightly  moist.  Feather  dusters  ought  to  be  prohibited  here 
as  elsewhere.  If  the  floor  be  swept,  the  dust  may  be  allowed 
to  settle  before  the  windows  are  opened.  After  school- 
hours  and  during  recesses,  the  rooms  should  be  well  aired 
through  the  opened  windows,  if  no  risk  of  chilling  the  chil- 
dren be  thereby  incurred. 

The  cellar  should  be  kept  clean.  No  privy  should  be 
within  the  walls  of  the  school-building,  nor  should  it  be  where 
it  may  chance   to  contaminate   a   well.     ^^  Dry  closets''  in 


BAD    AIR 


99 


connection  with  hot-air  heating  are,  at  times,  apparently  a 
means  of  propagating  disease  and  diffusing  bad  odors.  This 
seems  certainly  the  case  when  an  intricate  and  involved  sys- 
tem of  exhaust-air  flues  under  floors  is  connected  with  the 
dry  closets.  It  has  been  found  that  therein  the  currents  of 
air  can  occasionally  become  reversed,  and  are  then  a  means 
of  carrying  germs  of  disease  and  foul  odors  from  the  cellar 
and  the  vault,  back  to  the  rooms  and  between  the  floors. 
Furthermore,  it  is  observed  that  "  dry  closets  "  are  more 
draughty  than  they  should  be.  The  strong  inflowing  current 
of  air  is  apt  to  chill  those  who  use  such  places.  Water- 
closets,  or  earth-closets,  or  even  well-kept  privies,  are 
preferable  to  such  devices,  and  less  liable  to  work  harm- 
fully whenever  a  janitor  neglects  to  attend  properly  to  his 
duties  and  allows  the  necessary  fires  to  go  out. 

There  are  other  deviations  from  health,  besides  the  con- 
tagious and  infectious  diseases,  that  are  brought  about 
through  failure  to  attend  scrupulously  to  the  welfare  of  the 
scholar.  At  the  most  critical  years  of  childhood,  disease 
tendencies  are  very  apt  to  manifest  themselves,  and  then 
nature  must  be  aided  in  every  way  to  fight  impending  or 
beginning  disease.  Bad  air  in  schools  is  one  of  the  con- 
stant perils  to  the  child,  and  liberal  ventilation  is  necessary 
in  order  to  the  prevention  of  disease  among  those  who  have 
to  spend  hours  every  day  in  the  school-room.  Massachu- 
setts is  the  only  State  that  compels  by  law  an  abundance  of 
fresh  air  in  school-rooms.  The  welfare  of  the  future  citi- 
zens of  America  demands  that  other  States  follow  the  lead 
of  Massachusetts. 

Physicians  cannot  too  strongly  urge  the  importance  of 
having  teachers  instructed  in  the  essential  principles  of 
ventilation.  The  trained  medical  judgment  must  always 
recognize  the  very  great  value  of  abundant  fresh  air, 
especially  to  delicate  children.  Headaches,  so  common 
among  school-children,  especially  when  overworked,  are  very 


POO  SCHOOLS    AND    HEALTH 

often  due  solely  to  impure  air.  They  may  also  be  due  to 
eye-defects.  If  the  feet  of  children  are  allowed  to  be  cold, 
good  health  and  progress  cannot  be  expected. 

It  is  important  that  teachers  receive  hygienic  instruction 
in  the  elements  of  health  culture  and  disease  prevention. 
Such  a  minor  ailment  as  nose-bleeding,  in  ordinary  cases, 
is  often  due  to  a  constriction  of  the  blood-vessels  of  the 
neck  ;  and  then  it  is  relieved  by  loosening  collars  and  keep- 
ing children  in  fairly  correct  attitudes.  Children  tend  too 
often  to  slouchiness  of  gait  and  posture.  They  should  not 
be  allowed  to  contract  the  chest  by  rounding  the  back  and 
stooping  while  at  work.  They  must  not  remain  long  in  one- 
sided positions.  Play  or  work  that  calls  for  the  exercise  of 
only  one  side  of  the  body  is  deforming.  Permanent  cur- 
vatures of  the  spine  may  result  when  the  seat  is  too  far 
back  from  the  desk  or  bench  used  by  the  weakly  scholar. 
Any  tasks  causing  an  attitude  that  is  constrained  or  weary- 
ing, deserve  the  attention  of  medical  supervisors,  and  should 
be  restricted  or  abolished,  if  possible. 

Recesses  must  not  be  very  far  apart.  Every  school- 
house  needs  ample  play-grounds.  The  younger  and  more 
delicate  the  children,  the  more  do  they  need  frequent  re- 
laxation from  the  constraint  of  routine  work.  An  hour  of 
constant  application  is  too  much  for  them.  Merely  sitting 
still  is  too  irksome  for  a  very  young  child.  The  unsym- 
pathetic and  unintelligent  adult  cannot  always  be  made  to 
realize  this.  Play  should  follow  tasks  when  the  children  are 
very  young.  The  movements  of  the  light  school  gymnastics, 
adopted  long  ago  from  the  German  methods,  afford  a  relief 
and  at  the  same  time  a  healthful  exercise  for  children. 
These  exercises  are  best  in  fresh  air.  During  recesses,  the 
rooms  should  be  aired  by  opening  the  windows,  if  that  be 
practicable  without  any  risk  from  cold.  It  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  the  young  need  to  eat  often.  The  sugges- 
tions of  intelligent  teachers  as  to  what  their  pupils  shall  not 


DANGERS    TO    THE    EYESIGHT  lOI 

eat  may  be  of  extreme  value,  especially  when  the  parents  are 
ill-qualified  to  guide  their  children  aright. 

Eye  troubles  are  perhaps  the  most  important  of  the  in- 
juries which  may  result  to  children  when  insufficient  recog- 
nition is  given  to  their  needs  and  weaknesses.  The  various 
external  catarrhal  eye  disorders  are  more  or  less  contagious, 
or  in  any  case  it  is  safest  to  act  as  though  they  were.  If  the 
eyes  be  sore  or  weak,  attendance  at  school  is  usually  unde- 
sirable. Most  important  of  all  school  dangers  is  the  tend- 
ency to  the  development  of  near-sightedness  (or  "  myopia  "). 
The  extensive  and  prolonged  studies  of  Herman  Cohn  and 
others  have  established  the  certainty  that  children,  entering 
school  with  normal  eyes,  often  become  near-sighted  after  a 
time.  The  further  along  the  pupils  are  in  progress,  after 
years  of  diligent  study,  the  more  marked  is  the  near-sighted- 
ness liable  to  be.  This  is  not  the  only  eye-defect  that  study 
may  induce,  yet  it  is  by  all  odds  the  most  conspicuous.  It 
is  a  disease  of  indoor  life.  To  lessen  the  tendency,  care- 
ful and  constant  attention  must  be  given  to  insuring  suita- 
bly strong  light.  Over-use  of  the  eyes  must  be  guarded 
against. 

Close  concentration  on  fine  work  at  home  of  necessity 
aggravates  this  tendency,  and  the  light  supplied  children  in 
their  homes  is  often  much  worse  than  that  which  they  are 
furnished  in  school.  The  amount  of  out-of-school  study 
work  imposed  upon  the  young  scholars  should  be  limited. 
Whatever  they  do  at  home,  they  should  not,  when  at  school, 
be  made  to  bend  over  fine  type  and  badly  printed  maps, 
or  other  fine  work  and  delicate  shading  that  keeps  the 
eyes  at  a  constant  strain.  The  light  must  be  adequate  in 
the  darkest  portion  of  the  school-room.  The  strain  of  re- 
garding near  objects  for  any  length  of  time  is  injurious  to 
the  eyes,  and  must  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  Bet- 
ter is  it  to  have  the  well-lighted  walls  decorated  with  maps, 
illustrative  designs,  and  other  things  that  can  be  so  brought 


I02  SCHOOLS    AND    HEALTH 

into  the  plan  of  desirable  instruction.  In  this  manner  the 
eyes  are  given  their  proper  physiological  rest  by  being  taken 
away  from  near  objects  and  having  to  look  a  considerable 
number  of  feet  away. 

"Writing  must  always  be  carefully  taught,  and  scholars 
should  not  at  any  age  be  made  to  take  notes  so  rapidly  as  to 
develop  a  bad  handwriting.  Text-books  are  so  easily  to  be 
had  of  any  scope  that  they  make  note-taking  quite  needless 
when  this  is  done  at  the  expense  of  the  penmanship.  Dur- 
ing early  education,  a  practical,  easy  handwriting  must  be 
taught,  and  careful  formation  of  the  letters  insisted  upon  till 
the  habit  of  good  writing  is  permanently  formed.  Rapid 
writing  should  be  acquired  only  gradually,  and  not  striven 
for  at  first.  Fine  handwriting  and  feats  of  penmanship  are 
undesirable.  A  straight  up-and-down  hand  is  hygienically 
better  in  the  long  run  than  a  style  that  slants  much.  The 
upright  handwriting  is  more  legible  and  does  not  require  the 
scholar  to  twist  and  bend  the  body  into  curves  that  may  re- 
sult in  permanent  deformity.  The  adaptation  of  the  desk 
and  seat  to  the  pupil  are  important  in  preventing  distortion 
of  the  body,  as  will  shortly  be  indicated. 

Book  paper  ought  to  be  so  thick  and  strong  as  not  to 
show  an  impression  of  ordinary  printing  on  the  opposite 
side  of  a  page.  It  is  best  for  the  eye  when  somewhat  dull 
and  smooth  on  the  surface.  A  dead-white  paper  is  not 
usually  considered  so  desirable  for  the  eye  as  a  very  slightly 
yellowish  or  creamy  tint.  A  decided  yellow  tinge  is  objec- 
tionable. So  are  all  strong  colors.  The  width  of  a  printed 
column  ought,  in  no  case,  to  exceed  four  inches.  The  width 
of  this  page  is  slightly  less  than  three  and  a  half  inches. 
If  made  much  wider,  that  renders  it  more  difficult  for  the 
eye  to  run  from  line  to  line  in  continuous  reading. 

Printed  matter  should  be  in  type  that  is  sufficiently 
large.  This  book  is  chiefly  printed  with  type  of  the  size 
termed  long  primer.     That  is  large  enough  for  all  ordinary 


ILLUSTRATIVE    TYPE  I03 

purposes.  It  should  be  distinct,  of  good  quality,  and  not 
broken  or  worn. 

Sufficient  "  leading "  should  be  allowed  between  the 
lines  of  type.  When  type  is — like  the  preceding  para- 
graph— set  *'  solid,"  the  print  is  rendered  less  fit  for  the 
reader's  eye,  and  therefore  less  satisfactory  than  in  this 
line  and  the  four  lines  preceding,  as  well  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing five  lines,  where  the  "  leading  "  between  lines  is 
unusually  wide.  The  letters  of  each  word  should  also 
be  well  separated,  as  here  and  in  the  remainder  of  this 
paragraph,  where — as  in  all  the  above  lines — the  type 
is  of  the  same  uniform  size.  By  thus  having  the  words 
well  "spaced,"    still    greater    distinctness  is  produced. 

Foi  all  readers,  pearl  type,  such  as  in  these  ten  words,  or  of  this  size,  agate,  is  altogether 
too  small.  The  same  maybe  said  of  nonpareil,  which,  unfortunately,  is  used  in 
periodical  and  other  reading  matter  extensively  circulated  among  children  and 
others.  Minion  is  larger,  yet  must  be  considered  bad  for  the  eyes  ;  for 
it  is  much  too  small.  Even  the  next  larger  size,  brevier,  is  not  large 
enough,  although  very  commonly  employed.  Bourgeois  type  comes 
next  in  the  scale  ;  but  for  prolonged  reading,  as  in  encyclopaedias 
and  numerous  other  much-used  books,  as  well  as  periodicals 
and  newspapers,  it  is  inferior  to  long  primer,  which  is  a  stand- 
ard size  for  most  well-printed  books.  A  still  larger 
size,  such  as  small  pica,  is  better  for  young  children. 
For  the  very  young,  pica,  as  seen   In  these  two 

lines,  is    none    too    large.       Great    primer 

type  should  be  employed  in  the 
first  books  that  are  put  before  the 
eyes  of  the  youngest  children. 

School  desks  should  have  the  seats  slightly  under  them. 
Thus  a  perpendicular  line  dropped  from  the  inner  edge  of 
the  desk  (^,  in  Fig,  14)  ought  to  reach  the   seat  at  a  point 


I04 


SCHOOLS    AND    HEALTH 


^^zz^^^zz 


Fig. 


at  least  one  inch  inside  (that  is,  to  the  rear)  of  the  edge 
{K).     This  *^  7m?tus  dlsta?icey'  as  it  is  technically  termed,  by 

which  the  desk  overhangs  the 
seat,  ought  not  to  exceed  two 
inches,  for  the  reason  that  the 
pupil  may  be  impeded  in  free- 
dom of  movement  if  the  edge 
of  the  seat  reaches  very  far 
under  the  desk.  Such  an  ob- 
jection should  rule  when  both 
desk-lid  and  seat  are  rigidly 
fixed,  as  it  then  is  not  suffi- 
ciently easy  for  a  scholar  to 
sit  down  or  rise  to  a  standing 
position.  When  the  edge  of  the  seat  is  to  the  rear  of  a 
perpendicular  hne  dropped  from  the  edge  of  the  desk,  the 
condition  is  technically  termed  a  '^ plus  distance,''  and  is 
hygienically  objectionable  ;  for  then  the  pupil  has  to  bend 
the  spinal  column  too  much,  and  is  apt  to  acquire  therefrom 
a  permanent  slouchy,  stooping  attitude.  This  also  causes  a 
throwing  of  the  shoulders  habitually  forward. 

A  desk,  except  in  the  narrow  horizontal  portion  furthest 
away,  ought  to  be  slanted  slightly  toward  the  pupil.  For 
resting  the  book  in  reading,  an  angle  of  not  much  more 
than  forty-five  degrees  is  desirable.  This  can  be  secured 
by  an  adjustable  lid  such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  15.  When 
that  lid  is  not  thus  turned  back,  the  top  of  the  desk  has  a 
smooth  surface  with  an  angle  of  about  fifteen  degrees,  as 
indicated  in  Fig.  14.  Such  an  adjustable  arrangement  may 
cause  the  light  to  be  obstructed.  Hence  it  is  not  suitable 
for  all  places. 

Seats  ought  to  be  single  and  not  connected  with  the  desk 
behind  them.  It  is  often  desirable  that  there  be  a  hinge 
movement  (as  in  Fig.  15)  that  allows  the  lower  part  to  be 
turned  backward.     Thus  entrance  and  exit   are  easy,  and 


SCHOOL   DESKS 


105 


the  child  can  readily  rise  in  place  to  the  standing  position. 
Desks  are  usually  too  high  above  seats.  The  rear  edge  of 
the  desk  {E,  Fig.  14)  should  not  be  much  higher  than  the 
level  of  the  elbow.  Otherwise  the  shoulder  is  too  much 
raised  when  the  forearm  is  upon  the  desk,  as  in  writing. 
Desks  that  are 
too  high  tend 
to  cause  lat- 
eral curvature 
of  the  spine, 
the  spinal  col- 
umn becom- 
ing convex  to- 
ward the  side 
of  the  arm 
(usually  the 
right)  that  is 
habitually  em- 
ployed  for 
writing. 

The  verti- 
cal line  (EL^  Fig.  14),  technically  called  the  difference,  should 
in  an  average  case  equal  about  fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  child's 
height.  This  interval  ought  to  be  adjusted  to  the  child 
and  not  rigorously  set  by  tabulated  rules.  If  this  distance 
be  made  too  short,  the  child  is  caused  to  bow  the  body 
forward  too  much.  The  length  of  the  leg  from  the  knee 
downward  regulates  the  distance  {KF,  Fig.  14)  from  the 
seat  to  the  floor.  It  may  arbitrarily  be  set  at  about  two- 
sevenths  (or  a  little  less  than  thirty  per  cent.)  of  the  child's 
height.  In  all  cases,  the  sOle  and  heel  of  the  child's  foot 
should  rest  lightly  upon  the  floor. 

The  seat  ought  to  be  curved  to  make  sitting  comfortable. 
Figs.  14  and  15  indicate  the  nature  of  these  curves.  At  the 
point  K  the  edge  must  be  well  rounded  off.     The  back  of 


Fig. 


Io6  SCHOOLS    AND    HEALTH 

the  seat  ought  to  slant  a  little  to  the  rear  and  curve  back- 
ward. It  also  may  slightly  protrude  above  the  slight  de- 
pression for  the  hips,  so  as  to  rest  the  forward  curve  of  the 
small  of  the  back.  There  ought  to  be  no  marked  concav- 
ity from  side  to  side.  There  appears  to  be  a  growing 
tendency  to  adopt  the  single  backward  curve  (shown  in 
Fig.  15).  Yet  that  style  ought  always  to  slant  somewhat 
backward  as  well  as  curve  backward  in  its  upper  part. 
Schulthess  has  shown  anew  that,  unless  carefully  cor- 
rected and  supplied  with  proper  seats,  children  tend  to 
acquire  a  backward  curvature  of  the  spine  (kyphosis). 

Adjustable  seats  are  excellent,  especially  where  the 
attendance  is  not  large,  and  where  the  scholars  at  the  same 
time  are  liable  to  be  of  quite  different  sizes.  Some  cities, 
like  New  York,  have  in  the  public  schools  ten  different  set 
sizes  of  school  furniture.  Even  that  is  less  satisfactory  than 
the  use  of  desks  and  seats  which  can  be  fixed  to  accommo- 
date the  stature  of  the  scholar,  instead  of  the  scholar  being 
constrained  to  be  fitted  to  the  unchangeable  seat.  There 
are  various  good  patterns  of  these  adjustable  desks  and 
seats.  The  smoother  all  parts  of  the  school  furniture  are, 
the  better  for  the  health  ;  for  dust  lingers  least  where  there 
are  fewest  irregularities  of  surface.  Some  of  the  cheap  but 
showy  castings  used  for  school  furniture  are  very  faulty  in 
this  respect,  and  are  probably  never  dusted  out  clean.  The 
smooth,  simple  iron-.work  shown  in  Fig.  15  is  very  good. 

Too  much  work  in  and  out  of  school  is  imposed  upon 
many  very  young  children,  and  almost  inevitably  results  in 
injuring  them  in  a  more  or  less  recognizable  manner.  This 
is  particularly  the  case  with  the  "nervous"  and  organically 
weak,  who  ought  to  be  guarded  most  tenderly.  If  other- 
wise treated  there,  they  are  to  be  advised  not  to  attend 
school.  That  is  certainly  so  if  they  are  there  ruled  by 
austere  and  narrow-minded  teachers,  or  by  those  to  whom 
teaching  appears  merely  an  unsatisfactory  means  of  getting 


CONSIDERATE    TEACHING    REQUISITE  107 

a  livelihood  instead  of  being  one  of  the  highest  of  noble 
callings. 

Where  obvious  mental,  moral  or  physical  defects  or  dis- 
eases are  present  (and  the  skilled  observer  detects  more 
of  these  deficient  children  than  are  usually  recognized),  it 
seems  best  that  such  pupils  be  taught  quite  apart  from 
others.  Thereby  they  can  have  the  benefit  of  expert  in- 
structors, and  especial  consideration  is  given  to  their  par- 
ticular weaknesses.  Their  associations,  too,  are  thus  more 
fit  for  insuring  improvement  instead  of  deterioration.  Even 
the  condition  of  *'  nervousness  "  is  less  often  due  entirely  to 
inherited  conditions  than  is  commonly  supposed.  Bad  in- 
fluences and  imitation  explain  many  of  these  cases. 

Learning  is  not  in  itself  the  equivalent  of  either  power  or 
wealth.  It  usually  tends  rather  to  divert  one  from  the  paths 
of  what  is  commonly  deemed  success  in  life.  Education  (or 
a  bringing-out  of  the  faculties  of  the  plastic  mind)  is  vastly 
more  important  than  cramming  the  little  head  full  of  vain 
knowledge.  That  is,  a  child  is  better  off  if  it  be  taught  how 
to  learn  (while  at  the  same  time  exercise  of  judgment  and 
independent  thinking  are  favored)  than  if  it  know  lots  of 
the  customary  useless  things  hammered  into  the  shrinking 
or  passive  scholar  by  severe  disciplinarians.  The  more  sen- 
sitive children  are  fearfully  cramped  in  their  individuality 
by  the  usual  methods,  especially  if  at  the  same  time  they 
are  "slow."  This  is  conspicuously  the  case  where  teachers 
and  school  supervisors  are  chosen  and  kept  in  places  purely 
through  corrupt  political  "pull,"  however  incompetent  or 
inhuman  they  may  be. 

Impatient  or  austere  instructors  need  often  to  have  it 
impressed  upon  them  that  occasionally  very  stupid  children 
develop  into  the  greatest  intellectual  leaders  of  their  cen- 
tury. Many  a  ''  slow "  or  backward  child  has  become  a 
genius  or  an  immortal  conqueror  who,  by  sheer  ability  and 
force  of  character,  has  risen  superior  to  restrictive  influences 


Io8  SCHOOLS    AND    HEALTH 

and  has  in  part  shaped  the  world's  history  for  all  time.  If 
dunces  were  as  deficient  in  power  as  the  average  teacher 
regards  them,  history  and  literature  would  have  fewer  dis- 
tinguished names  ;  for  many  of  the  world's  great  have — like 
Swift,  Sheridan,  Scott,  and  Wellington — in  early  years  been 
reputed  "  blockheads  "  by  their  instructors. 

Very  many  ordinary  children  become  physically  inferior 
as  well  as  mentally  dwarfed,  and  have  their  better  possibili- 
ties suppressed  under  the  harmful  influence  of  harsh  and 
unsympathetic  teachers.  Weakly  children  should  never  be 
punished  by  being  deprived  of  play  or  out-of-door  exercise. 
Those  teachers  who  punish  average  children  by  keeping 
them  from  meals  or  shutting  them  up  in  terrifying  and  dark 
rooms  deserve  in  most  cases  to  be  regarded  as  dangerous  to 
the  community.  Fear  of  punishment  affects  young  scholars 
much  more  than  older  ones.  It  produces  dangerous  and 
indeed  fatal  results.  Statistics  even  show  that  a  number  of 
cases  of  child-suicide  can  be  definitely  traced  to  this  cause. 

School  attendance  should  not  be  required  of  average 
children  before  the  age  of  seven,  and  that  is  very  often  too 
early.  If  they  attend  regularly  at  an  earlier  age,  the  hours 
should  not  exceed  three  per  day,  the  recesses  and  intermis- 
sions in  study  ought  to  be  frequent,  and  it  is  wiser  to  teach 
them  to  play  than  to  make  them  perform  tasks.  The 
"  kindergarten  "  methods  are  not  to  be  systematically  em- 
ployed with  a  child  younger  than  four  years.  Even  then, 
these  methods  must  be  of  the  gentlest,  wholly  without  re- 
straint, very  gradual  and  avoiding  all  stimulus  or  the  en- 
forcement of  tasks.  Only  the  most  devoted  of  intelligent 
women  are  fit  to  conduct  such  schools. 

Kindergarten  schools  afford  a  valuable  but  incom- 
plete substitute  for  the  care  of  a  true  mother.  They  are 
most  useful  for  children  at  either  social  extreme  where  a 
mother  neglects  her  offspring  whether  by  force  of  want 
and  depravity  or  owing   to  heartlessness   and  a  persistent 


KINDERGARTEN    SCHOOLS  I09 

devotion  to  empty  and  ephemeral  pleasures.  The  children 
of  such  mothers,  even  though  amid  great  affluence,  are  in  their 
earlier  years  better  off  in  well-conducted  institutions  and 
away  from  the  wholly  harmful  influences  of  immoral,  vicious 
and  disease-carrying  foreign  nurses. 

It  is  proper  here  to  mention  that  recent  thorough  experiments  have 
added  to  the  accumulated  evidence  that  much  arsenic  is  present  in  many 
of  the  colors  used  upon  various  articles  that  go  to  make  up  the  kinder- 
garten outfit.  Objectionable  amounts  of  this  poison  may  be  present  in 
some  of  the  glazed  papers  commonly  used  for  the  little  learners  to 
"  play"  with. 

Dr.  Thorne,  in  his  valuable  monograph  on  diphtheria,  emphasizes 
repeatedly  the  fact,  well  known  to  experts,  that  unrecognized  diphtheria 
may  prevail  very  extensively  and  be  considered  as  only  "  sore  throat." 
He  further  shows  very  clearly  that,  as  is  generally  recognized  among 
us,  diphtheria  is  especially  liable  to  occur  among  children  in  elementary 
schools,  and  that,  as  with  various  other  diseases,  so  in  diphtheria  *'  by 
far  the  largest  mortality  in  any  age-group  is  that  which  takes  place  in 
the  first  five  years  of  life." 

Since,  then,  various  diseases  of  the  most  serious  nature,  as  well  as 
milder  ones,  are  unquestionably  caused  by  intimate  contact  in  these 
elementary  "play-schools,"  it  is  well  to  keep  children  away  if  any 
teacher  or  pupil  who  attends  such  a  school  have  any  ailment  or  be  known 
to  come  into  contact  in  whatsoever  way  with  any  person  having  an  infec- 
tious disease,  or  even  be  suspected  of  having  been  exposed  to  infection. 


OCCUPATION 

Numerous  diseases  are  conveyed  from  one  worker  to 
another  through  careless  contact  or  by  means  of  insuffi- 
ciently cleaned  utensils  or  other  articles.  The  various 
disorders  that  may  arise  in  that  way  are  spoken  of  at  suffi- 
cient length  in  the  chapter  on  Infectious  Diseases.  Tuber- 
culosis is  the  most  conspicuous  and  dreadful  of  all  of  these. 
It  is  constantly  disseminated  from  the  unclean  dirt  of 
ill-ventilated  rooms.  All  such  infection  is  absent  from 
properly  cleaned  places  where  there  are  no  cases  of  the 
infectious  diseases  and  to  which  places  neither  the  diseases 
nor  their  products  are  brought.  Hence  the  presence  of 
consumption  or  any  other  infectious  disorder  should  induce 
caution  and  a  disposition  to  insist  upon  cleanliness  and  the 
removal  of  the  cause  of  any  filth.  Workrooms  when  swept 
out  at  the  end  of  the  day  (as  is  proper)  ought  to  have  moist 
sawdust  then  used  for  catching  the  dust.  Yet  this  sawdust 
must  be  clean.  Otherwise  it  is  not  fit  to  strew  over  the  floor. 
Steam-heat  insures  the  destruction  of  harmful  germs. 

W"ater-supplies,  used  for  drinking  purposes  by  working 
people,  need  especial  consideration.  In  some  localities, 
among  mines  and  in  various  kinds  of  work,  metallic  poisons 
may  regularly  be  present  in  the  water.  Distilled  water  for 
drinking  is  to  be  substituted  for  the  natural  water  in  such 
cases,  and  is  usually  easy  to  procure.  Even  if  crudely 
produced  and  having  a  slight  oily  taste,  it  deserves  to  be 
commended  as  a  healthful  water.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  by  employers  to  see  that  no  contamination  exists  or 
can  occur  in  the  water-supply  (or  ice)  consumed  by  those 


TO    AVOID    INFECTIONS  III 

working  for  them.  Otherwise  typhoid  fever,  cholera  and 
other  diseases  may  arise. 

Very  serious  diseases  occasionally  attack  those  who  handle 
wool,  hides  or  rags  that  happen  to  be  infected.  The  san- 
itary value  of  disinfecting  all  of  these  would  seem  unques- 
tionable, although  the  watchword  cleanliness  must  not 
unnecessarily  be  made  an  obstacle  to  any  industry.  Such 
things  as  are  known  to  have  been  infected  ought  never  to 
be  used  without  adequate  disinfection.  It  is  best,  and  in 
the  end  most  economical,  that  all  clothing,  from  persons 
who  have  had  small-pox  or  other  dangerous  infective  dis- 
eases, be  invariably  burned  and  never  sold  as  rags.  Other- 
wise cases  of  disease  are  especially  liable  to  occur  among 
those  who  sort  rags  for  paper  mills.  Proper  disinfection  is 
sufficient  to  render  such  articles  harmless ;  yet  disinfection 
is  too  often  ignorantly  or  carelessly  carried  out. 

Those  who  are  liable  to  come  into  contact  with  infected 
objects  should  attend  carefully  to  the  condition  of  their 
hands,  as  slight  injuries  of  the  skin  may  afford  an  entrance- 
way  for  disease  germs  to  get  into  the  system.  In  order  to 
remove  any  bacteria  or  poisons  that  have  just  been  carried 
into  the  skin  (or  deeper)  with  a  knife  or  whatever  else  has 
accidentally  caused  a  wound,  this  wound  should  (immediately 
upon  being  made)  be  rinsed  clean.  Boiled  water  is  best  for 
the  purpose.  If  the  cut  skin  bleeds  freely  for  a  minute, 
that  outflow  of  blood  is  desirable,  since  it  washes  out  the 
wound  from  within.  A  layer  of  collodion  or  other  pro- 
tective should  be  applied  before  using  the  hands  after  a  cut 
or  scratch. 

Harmful  gases  have  especially  to  be  guarded  against 
in  various  industries.  Such  chemical  products  may  seem 
indispensable  for  certain  kinds  of  work  ;  yet  they  offer  con- 
stant and  serious  hygienic  dangers.  Chlorine  and  sulphur- 
ous acid  occur  in  some  bleaching  occupations  and  in  certain 
chemical  processes:     Nitrous  acid  fumes  are  encountered 


112  OCCUPATION 

in  connection  with  "  etching  "  and  "  pickling "  various 
metals,  as  well  as  in  aniline-color  manufacturing  and  in  acid 
works.  Hydrochloric  acid  gas  occurs  chiefly  in  connection 
with  soda  manufacture.  Among  the  harmful  products  of 
gas  works,  ammonia  may  be  mentioned.  It  occurs  also 
with  the  use  of  ice-making  machines.  All  of  these  produce 
at  first  an  excitation  of  the  respiration,  together  with  irrita- 
tion of  the  breathing  surfaces  and  of  the  outer  eye.  Further 
effects  are  catarrhal  irritations,  which  may  be  very  severe  if 
the  irritant  gas  be  allowed  to  continue  its  action.  When 
very  strong,  these  gases  can  soon  cause  death.  People  differ 
greatly  in  their  sensitiveness  to  these  irritating  gases. 

Chemical  safeguards  can  occasionally  be  employed  to 
neutralize  these  dangers.  Against  chlorine  gas,  for  instance, 
it  is  important  to  use  inhalers  holding  cotton  moistened 
with  alcohol.  With  all  these  and  with  sulphuretted  hy- 
drogen and  other  extensively  used  chemical  agents,  the 
essential  hygienic  measure  is  to  adapt  the  construction 
and  arrange  the  details  of  the  processes  so  that  all  possible 
precautions  are  invariably  taken  to  lessen  and  control  the 
risks  and  to  guard  the  workers.  "  Sewer  gas  "  is  spoken  of 
on  page  15  and  in  later  chapters.  The  general  importance 
of  ventilating  against  ordinary  contaminations  of  the  air  is 
considered  in  the  chapter  on  Ventilation.  The  necessity 
of  removing  gaseous  and  other  products  from  the  air  is 
very  important  in  certain  occupations. 

Many  of  the  substances  that  form  dust  are  harm- 
ful. That  dust  which  most  injures  the  lung  tissue  does  not 
often  carry  the  germs  of  tuberculosis.  The  high  rate  of 
mortality  from  tuberculous  consumption  among  such  work- 
ers as  grinders  of  steel  is  because  the  fine,  sharp  particles  of 
steel  dust  cut  minute  wounds  in  the  lung  surface.  If,  then, 
numerous  tubercle  bacilli  be  present  in  the  dust  of  the  close 
workrooms,  these  microorganisms  can  enter  into  the  lung 
tissue  more  readily  than  if  the  delicate  surfaces  were  not 


DANGEROUS  DUST — POISONING  BY  LEAD,  ETC.  II3 

already  wounded.  Various  other  mineral  dusts  are  injurious 
in  somewhat  the  same  way.  All  of  these  tend  in  any  case 
to  cause  chronic  catarrhs  of  the  lung  tissues. 

Vegetable  dusts  likewise  affect  the  lungs  as  a  rule  ;  but 
they  usually  cause  less  serious  symptoms  than  are  produced 
by  mineral  dust.  Occasionally,  skin  symptoms  are  observed 
from  the  action  of  such  dust.  Tobacco  dust  has  the  effect 
of  weakening  the  system  exposed  to  its  influence  and  there- 
by rendering  it  more  susceptible  to  various  diseases.  Flour 
dust  (like  fine  coal  dust)  explodes  at  times  very  violently 
when  in  contact  with  gaslight  or  other  flames.  It  is  stated 
that  black  walnut  sawdust  is  exceeding  bad  for  catarrhal 
cases.  In  workrooms  where  dust  abounds,  exhaust  blowers 
or  suction  fans  (see  Fig.  29)  should  be  used. 

Poisonous  dust  from  lead,  arsenic,  and  other 
metals,  as  also  from  various  other  substances  used  in  the 
industrial  arts,  may  act  upon  and  through  the  digestive  tract 
as  well  as  by  being  inhaled.  Lead  is  unhealthfully  present 
in  many  articles  of  daily  use.  Even  silk  threads  may  be  so 
loaded  with  it  as  to  cause  poisoning  in  some  sewing-people 
who  frequently  moisten  such  thread  with  the  lips.  Type- 
setters, painters,  crystal-glass  grinders,  and  indeed  any  class 
of  people  coming  into  contact  with  lead,  are  more  or  less 
liable  to  take  the  poison  into  the  system.  The  chief  oc- 
cupations involving  danger  from  lead  dust  as  such  are  work- 
ing in  white-lead  manufactories,  smelting,  and  allied  lead- 
purifying  work.  Chronic  lead-poisoning  is  recognized  by  the 
blue  lead  line  on  the  edges  of  the  gums.  Colic  and  con- 
stipation are  the  most  marked  symptoms.  Later,  paralysis 
of  the  extensor  muscles  results. 

The  most  important  preventive  measure  is  cleanliness  on 
the  part  of  the  workman,  as  regards  the  person.  Especial 
care  is  also  called  for  to  avoid  getting  lead  into  food  or 
drink.  The  danger  of  lead  coming  into  the  system  by  the 
use  of  lead  pipes  and  improperly  made  cooking  vessels  is 
8 


114  OCCUPATION 

spoken  of  in  the  chapters  on  Food  and  Water.  Workers  in 
occupations  that  involve  lead  danger  ought  carefully  to 
wash  the  hands  before  touching  the  mouth  or  any  food. 
Besides  cleansing  the  person,  it  is  well  also  for  people  work- 
ing with  lead  to  change  the  outer  clothing  before  eating 
meals.  Nothing  should  be  eaten  by  them  within  the  work- 
room. A  drop  or  two  of  sulphuric  acid  may  with  advan- 
tage be  added  to  the  water  to  be  drunk  while  at  such  work. 
Milk  is  found  to  be  a  useful  drink  in  white-lead  mills  ;  yet 
of  course  it  must  not  be  left  exposed  in  the  workrooms. 

Workers  in  "  silvering "  '  mirrors  and  in  amalgamating 
processes,  hat-makers,  gilders  and  others  who  have  to  do 
with  mercury  are  liable  to  poisoning  by  that  mineral.  Its 
effects  are  shown,  in  an  early  stage,  by  excessive  flow  of 
saliva  and  by  soreness  of  the  mouth.  Later  come  nervous 
symptoms  and  trembling.  As  in  poisoning  from  any  other 
work,  it  is  here  necessary  to  remove  the  patient  at  once 
from  further  contact  with  the  harmful  substance.  Careless 
use  of  corrosive  sublimate  as  a  disinfectant  is  dangerous. 
Hence  such  solutions  ought  to  be  slightly  colored  to  pre- 
vent mistake.     Careful  labelling  is  always  necessary. 

Arsenic  is  especially  liable  to  be  dangerous  to  makers 
of  artificial  flowers.  This  poison  causes  irritant  symptoms 
of  eyes,  throat  and  stomach.  Removal  from  the  cause  is 
imperative  whenever  these  symptoms  appear.  Extreme 
cleanliness  is  the  main  safeguard  in  all  of  the  occupations 
involving  danger  of  metallic  poisoning  from  any  source. 

Some  industries  may  be  injurious  or  annoying  to  neigh- 
boring residents.  A  stench,  however,  is  not  of  itself  a  direct 
cause  of  ill  health.  Whether  the  odor  come  from  "  render- 
ing "  establishments,  glue  manufactories,  brick  kilns  or  other 
works,  a  business  of  such  an  unpleasant  sort  which  an  indi- 
vidual finds  offensive  cannot  always  be  driven  off  by  legal 
processes,  although  at  times  such  means  may  be  of  avail. 
Things  that   are  positively  nuisances    are   usually  remedi- 


PREVENTABLE    ACCIDENTS  II5 

able,  and  apt  to  be  bettered  if  existing  enactments  be  en- 
forced. 

Inflammable  liquids  introduce  an  element  of  great 
danger.  Naphtha  and  benzine,  as  used  for  "  dry  cleans- 
ing" of  gloves  and  clothes,  may  be  instanced  in  this  con- 
nection. In  no  case  should  such  explosive  things  be 
brought  near  a  fire.  In  printing  establishments,  turpentine 
ought  to  be  used  instead  of  benzine  or  naphtha  for  cleans- 
ing the  rolls.  Very  dangerous  businesses  should  be  removed 
to  places  remote  from  habitations  if  danger  of  explosion  be 
involved. 

Soundness  of  boilers  ought  invariably  to  be  insisted 
upon.  Reliable  and  competent  inspectors  are  necessary. 
Ordinary  engines  are  now  so  made  that  they  do  not  require 
as  great  care  as  is  necessary  for  boilers  ;  and  yet  laws  require 
any  one  to  have  passed  an  examination  in  order  to  receive 
a  permit  to  run  an  engine  in  certain  places.  In  the  same 
places,  however,  the  boiler  can  be  in  the  charge  of  a  very 
stupid  and  ignorant  person.  This  is  a  menacing  incon- 
sistency, and  means  an  increased  liability  to  boiler  explo- 
sions by  mismanagement  of  the  steam.  Much  greater  steam 
pressures  are  now  employed  than  were  usual  a  few  years 
ago.  Steam-fittings  must  correspondingly  be  made  of  heavy 
iron  having  great  tensile  strength  and  malleability. 

To  the  humanitarian,  it  seems  particularly  deplorable  that, 
with  the  great  improvements  made  in  the  construction  of 
engines  and  boilers,  no  practical  device  for  automatic  stok- 
ing on  steamships  has  ever  been  produced.  Much  injury 
comes,  both  directly  and  indirectly,  to  the  men  who  have  to 
do  the  stoking.  Many  deaths  occur  every  month  from  the 
effects  of  such  work.  To  sailors,  the  dangers  of  the  sea  are 
constantly  lessening  with  the  increase  in  improved  steam- 
ships. Yet  the  quantity  of  dangerous  sailing  vessels  that 
cupidity  still  keeps  afloat  is  large,  and  is  apt  to  continue  so 
as  long  as  underwriters  will  insure  the  cargoes. 


Il6  OCCUPATION 

Numerous  thousands  of  workers  are  Injured  every  year 
by  imperfect  machinery  and  labor-saving  devices  of  various 
sorts.  Such  people  reveal  by  their  painful  examples  the 
importance  of  having  legislative  dictation  insist  that  neces- 
sary safeguards  be  employed.  Circular  saws,  belting  and 
all  machinery  in  motion  should  be  more  carefully  guarded 
than  is  usual.  Then  we  may  expect  that  heedless  and 
nervous  persons  will  be  less  Hable  to  injury  than  is  now  the 
case.  Workmen  are  not  always  disposed  to  wear  spectacles, 
masks,  and  the  numerous  other  contrivances  found  of  service 
in  warding  off  injury  such  as  comes  with  certain  occupations. 

The  safety  of  the  people  demands  that  more  thorough 
investigations  be  made  of  each  of  the  numerous  accidents 
upon  our  railways.  In  those  parts  of  this  country  where  due 
attention  is  paid  to  supervision  and  discipline,  accidents  are 
fewer,  if  we  judge  by  the  reports  of  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission.  The  speed  of  the  trains  is  not  the  cause  of  the 
very  many  accidents  reported  regularly  in  the  Railroad  Ga- 
zette and  other  journals.  Overwork  and  carelessness  explain 
many  of  these  casualties.  More  searching  efforts  to  fix 
responsibility  in  every  case,  with  the  infliction  of  a  suitable 
and  salutary  punishment,  whether  the  guilty  one  rank  high 
or  low,  would  greatly  lessen  our  railway  accidents  and  their 
notable  fataHties  and  mutilations.  Automatic  couplers  have 
gradually  been  introduced  even  without  legislation  and  have 
already  proved  of  extreme  benefit.  Passenger  cars  should 
no  longer  have  any  kind  of  stoves  in  them.  Steam  from  the 
locomotive  is  much  safer  as  a  means  of  warming. 

Color-blindness  is  present  in  a  varying  percentage  of 
people,  especially  among  civilized  races.  It  is  an  incurable 
defect.  Of  practical,  every-day  importance  is  the  fact  that 
railway  employees  and  pilots  are  occasionally  deficient  in 
this  sense,  and  cannot  tell  a  red  light  or  flag  from  one  that 
is  green.  As  these  are  the  most  common  colors  for  signal- 
ling and  are  constantly  used,  it  is  important  that  applicants 


TESTING    FOR    COLOR-BLINDNESS  II7 

for  positions  requiring  acuteness  of  this  sense  be  examined 
by  a  suitable  test.  For  this  purpose,  fifty  or  more  small 
skeins  of  worsteds  of  various  colors  are  thrown  together. 
The  pile  thus  formed  should  contain  several  shades  of  green, 
gray,  yellow,  pink,  red,  brown.  Violet,  purple  and  blue 
skeins  are  also  to  be  included.  Three  larger  skeins  are 
always  needed  to  be  referred  to  as  ''  sample  colors."  Fol- 
lowing Holmgren,  we  select,  for  these  three  colors,  a  bright 
red  (rather  yellowish),  a  purple  pink  (magenta,  medium  light), 
and  a  light  apple-green. 

To  test  a  person,  the  large  gj-een  sample  skein  is  placed  on 
a  white  cloth  or  paper  laid  over  a  table.  At  a  little  distance 
from  it,  the  other  skeins  are  laid  in  a  loose  pile.  The  per- 
son being  tested  is  asked  to  pick  out  from  this  pile,  without 
naming  the  colors,  any  skeins  that  seem  to  be  of  the  same 
color  as  this  sample  skein,  whether  darker  or  lighter.  To 
instruct  a  man  who  seems  embarrassed,  the  examiner  may 
select  a  few  skeins  properly  and  then  return  them  to  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  pile  with  the  request  that  they  be  again 
picked  out  in  the  same  way. 

If  thereupon  only  the  greenish  shades  are  taken  out  by 
the  person  being  tested,  and  are  readily  placed  with  the 
larger  green  skein,  the  eyesight  may  be  pronounced  satis- 
factory as  regards  color  perception.  If  grays  or  browns 
and  others  are  also  thrown  in,  a  further  test  is  made. 

For  this,  the  large  purple  (or  magenta)  skein  is  set  apart 
from  the  pile  of  worsteds.  Then  the  man  is  asked  to  put 
with  it  the  small  skeins  of  a  similar  color.  If  he  then  select 
only  greens,  grays,  blues  or  violets,  he  is  color-blind  as 
regards  either  green  or  red.  He  is  also  color-blind  if  he  adds 
light  green  and  light  brown  or  dark  green  and  dark  brown. 
Such  an  applicant  for  a  place  involving  the  recognition  of 
signals  should  be  rejected  or  referred  to  a  specially  skilled 
expert.  For  engravers  and  etchers,  color-blindness  is  said  to 
prove  rather  an  advantage  than  otherwise. 


Il8  OCCUPATION 

General  Considerations 

Cheapness  of  industrial  products  is  very  often  got  at  too 
dear  a  price.  This  is  inevitably  the  case  if  the  cheapness, 
so  incessantly  striven  for  in  most  occupations,  has  caused 
the  standard  of  manhood  to  be  lowered,  or  if  women  are 
employed  without  respect  for  their  sex  and  their  weak- 
nesses, or  whenever  children  are  forced  or  even  allowed  to 
do  work  fit  only  for  older  people.  The  immediate  gain  to 
unscrupulous  employers  and  the  capitalists  and  authorities 
that  sanction  or  aid  them  is  as  nothing  compared  wdth  the 
harm  resulting  to  the  nation  from  lowering  its  quality  of 
virtue,  morality  and  health.  Children  should  never  be  per- 
mitted to  work  steadily  in  industries  or  in  mercantile  estab- 
lishments before  the  fifteenth  year.  Even  then,  their  hours 
of  work  ought  to  be  only  half  as  many  as  those  of  adults. 
They  should  also  be  required  to  attend  schools,  both  general 
and  technical. 

Where  women  work  in  factories,  they  should  be  com- 
pelled to  rest  for  at  least  a  month  after  child-birth.  Prop- 
erly conducted  day  nurseries  for  the  care  of  the  babes  of 
workingwomen  are  of  great  value  to  the  community.  With 
these,  there  should  be  kindergarten  or  other  schools  pro- 
vided for  the  young  children  of  such  mothers  as  have  to 
work  away  from  their  homes  during  the  day-time.  Private 
beneficence  has  inaugurated  numbers  of  these.  The  charge 
to  the  mothers  is  there  very  small,  and  the  hygienic  care  of 
the  children  is  usually  very  efficient.  These  places  need  to 
be  under  the  best  medical  supervision.  Extreme  precau- 
tion must  be  employed  against  the  entrance  of  infection  or 
any  possible  diffusion  of  disease.  It  is,  for  instance,  danger- 
ous to  have  a  consumptive  in  charge  of  the  babies  in  such 
places,  and  the  nurses  or  the  children  admitted  should  not 
have  been  near  a  case  of  scarlet  fever,  measles,  diphtheria, 
or  other  communicable  disease. 

Hygienists  and  economists,  as  well  as  others  capable  of 


OVERWORK  119 

impartial  thinking,  echo  the  cry  of  the  laborer  tor  fewer 
hours  of  work.  The  last  half  century  in  Europe  and  in 
the  better  parts  of  America  has  witnessed  a  notable  rise  in 
the  wages  of  workers.  Yet,  during  that  time,  the  hours  of 
work  have  been  lowered  in  number  from  ninety  to  less  than 
fifty-seven  per  week.  The  Lancashire  cotton-spinner,  in 
his  efforts  to  supply,  with  his  products,  the  demand  of  the 
entire  world,  dreads  the  competition  of  his  rival  in  Mas- 
sachusetts and  wherever  else  the  hours  of  labor  are  shortest. 
He  is  not  concerned  about  what  is  produced  by  India, 
Russia,  or  other  lands  where  the  laborer  toils  many  hours 
for  a  pittance.  Rivalry  need  not  generally  be  feared  from 
people  who  are  overworked  and  underpaid. 

Legislation  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  worker  has 
almost  invariably  resulted  in  enhanced  material  prosperity 
and  in  higher  moral  and  physical  health  of  both  the  individ- 
ual and  the  community.  Experience  has  demonstrated  that 
self -helpfulness  among  laborers  is  not  lessened  by  legislative 
action  directed  toward  improving  their  condition.  Steam 
has  so  vulgarized  labor  that  independence  and  individuality 
are  rendered  possible  only  in  so  far  as  the  worker  escapes 
from  the  trammels  of  prolonged  and  monotonous  toil. 

Short  shifts  should  be  the  rule  in  the  various  industries 
where  excessive  effort  is  called  for,  and  the  number  of  hours 
there  required  of  a  worker  should  be  small.  Occasional  in- 
tervals should  be  allowed,  as  for  rest  and  food.  Those 
engaged  in  occupations  involving  danger  of  poisoning,  by 
inhaling  or  otherwise  receiving  harmful  substances  into  the 
system,  should  not  remain  exposed  in  the  dangerous  atmos- 
phere for  more  than  a  very  brief  time. 

Brain-workers  need  to  beware  of  undermining  their 
health  by  incessant  application.  Excessive  and  unintermit- 
ting  outlay  of  nervous  energy  and  persistent  concentration 
of  the  faculties  for  prolonged,  exacting  work  wear  out  the 
human  machine,  and  induce  distressing  nervous  disorders 


I20  OCCUPATION 

to  blot  out  early  a  painful  life.  Occupation  of  some  sort  is 
necessary  to  contentment  and  affords  the  best  safeguard  of 
happiness.  Work  is  eminently  beneficial  to  all.  Yet  con- 
tinuous and  unvaried  exercise  of  the  same  energies  means 
exhaustion  if  not  deterioration.  Variety  is  necessary  to 
human  perfection.  Overwork  in  any  line  of  mental  activity 
does  not  give  the  most  satisfactory  results.  Mr.  Gladstone 
— whose  active  yet  varied  life  is  a  constant  object-lesson  to 
the  student  of  how  to  enjoy  health  in  old  age  and  yet 
work  vigorously — illustrated  this  recently,  in  explaining  his 
strength,  by  saying  :  "  There  was  once  a  road  leading  out  of 
London  on  which  more  horses  died  than  on  any  other,  and 
inquiry  revealed  the  fact  that  it  was  perfectly  level.  Con- 
sequently the  animals,  in  travelling  over  it,  used  only  one  set 
of  muscles." 

Diversity  is  beneficial  for  all  human  beings.  Improving 
recreation,  as  Bishop  H.  C.  Potter  has  recently  said,  is  de- 
sirable for  the  weekly  day  of  rest  as  well  as  for  holidays. 
Picture  galleries,  museums  and  libraries  should  be  open  at 
the  times  when  they  can  most  serve  the  great  body  of  the 
public.  The  freer  these  educational  and  recreative  institu- 
tions are  made,  the  better. 

Workshops  and  workrooms  should  not  only  have  the 
most  effective  appliances,  but  the  health  of  the  employed 
ought  to  be  considered  in  every  way.  The  rooms  should  be 
suitably  warmed  in  cold  weather.  Many  workrooms  are 
kept  too  hot.  Steam-heat,  so  generally  used  in  new  struct- 
ures for  manufacturing  purposes,  does  not  of  itself  insure 
sufficient  moisture  or  change  of  air.  Extra  faciHties  for 
ventilation  are  needed  in  most  cases.  Manufacturers  who 
properly  ventilate  their  mills  and  other  establishments  find 
that  the  employed  can  do  at  least  ten  per  cent,  more  work 
than  when  the  air  is  bad.  Much  illness  in  offices  is,  in  part 
at  least,  to  be  ascribed  to  imperfect  ventilation.  Some  of 
the  greatest  corporations  are  strangely  neglectful  of  their 


FRESH    AIR CLEANLINESS  121 

own  interests  by  failing  to  provide  better  breathing  air  for 
the  clerks  in  their  offices.  Physicians  appreciate  this  better 
than  architects  appear  to.  These  defective  provisions  for 
health  seem  in  too  many  cases  the  result  of  dense  ignorance 
rather  than  due  to  niggardliness.  The  light  is  very  often 
badly  arranged  in  such  places. 

For  artificial  illumination,  incandescent  electric  lights 
seem  ordinarily  the  most  suitable.  In  mills  and  large  estab- 
lishments in  general  it  is  best  that  the  electric  supply  come 
through  several  independent  and  well-insulated  main  wires. 
If  there  be  only  one  wire,  an  accident  can  involve  instant 
darkening  with  possible  consequent  panic  under  some  con- 
ditions. Comfortable  arrangements  for  providing  meals  are 
of  advantage  to  all.  The  water-supply  of  manufactories 
ought  to  be  very  pure.  In  any  case,  measures  should  be 
adopted  at  time  of  epidemic  or  other  infection  to  sterilize 
the  drinking  water.  Cleanliness  should  be  inculcated  and 
facilitated  in  every  way.  Water-closets  or  their  substitutes 
ought  to  be  arranged  with  thorough  regard  for  health  and 
convenience.  Toilet  rooms  for  women  must  be  entirely 
separate  from  those  for  men. 

Tenements  and  other  dwellings  controlled  by  man- 
ufacturing concerns  need  to  be  more  hygienically  constructed 
than  is  usually  the  case.  This  is  extremely  important,  since 
much  of  the  life  of  the  workingman's  family  is  spent  in  the 
dwelling.  In  the  more  crowded  parts  of  our  largest  cities, 
the  tenement-houses  are  sadly  unsuited  for  the  rearing  of 
healthy  families.  Germs  of  infectious  disorders  abound  in 
such  places,  and  disease  therefore  spreads  freely.  Unclean- 
liness  is  there  alarmingly  prevalent  in  streets,  rooms  and 
clothing.  Systematic  efforts  to  diffuse  instruction  in  the 
ways  of  cleanliness  and  health  do  much  to  improve  the 
condition  of  the  occupants  of  these  unhealthful  abodes. 

Most  valuable  is  such  teaching  when  directed  intelli- 
gently to  the  plastic  minds  of  the  young.     Even  a  wholly 


122  OCCUPATION 

degraded  family  Is  apt  to  show  clearly  in  various  ways  the 
healthful  influences  of  such  valuable  training  bestowed  upon 
one  of  its  younger  members.  Yet  the  usual  misdirected 
"  charity  "  tends  to  lower  people.  It  needs  to  be  restricted 
and  organized ;  for  otherwise  this  word,  like  the  term 
"trades  union,"  too  often  means  a  great  wrong  and  covers 
a  multitude  of  sins  against  the  American  poor. 

If  a  portion  of  his  wages  be  allowed  to  accumulate  instead  of  being 
paid  for  rent  of  an  undesirable  tenement  in  a  crowded  city,  the  work- 
man can  acquire  in  time  a  healthful  home  in  a  country  district,  provided 
that  he  be  willing  to  forego  the  tawdry  allurements  of  a  city.  The 
family  is  under  much  more  healthful  influences  in  the  properly  selected 
country  home  than  in  a  big  city.  Of  course,  it  is  understood  that  in 
such  cases  suitable  sanitary  precautions  are  observed,  and  that  the  site 
is  well  chosen.  When  dwellings  are  erected  by  a  corporation  for  the 
occupancy  of  its  work-people,  self-interest  and  a  desire  to  aid  those 
who  are  directly  connected  with  the  prosperity  of  the  industry  ought  to 
cause  the  work  of  construction  and  the  sanitary  equipment  to  be  well 
done.  If  speculative  outsiders  or  individual  workmen  attempt  to  con- 
struct such  habitations,  the  result  is  often  less  satisfactory. 

Unmarried  workers  in  manufacturing  communities  should  have  special 
separate  quarters  provided  for  each  sex.  Hospital  facilities  ought  to 
be  made  so  agreeable  and  generally  satisfactory  to  the  population  that 
they  will  voluntarily  seek  such  superior  accommodation  whenever  ill. 
Infectious  diseases  are  always  best  treated  in  hospitals  especially 
arranged  for  isolating  such  cases. 

Mutual  accident  insurance,  hfe  insurance,  health  insurance  and 
also  a  system  of  pensioning  are  very  important  for  the  welfare  of 
workingmen  and  their  families.  Most  workers,  especially  if  skilled, 
receive  considerably  more  wage  money  than  they  absolutely  need,  and 
this  surplus  is  too  often  expended  in  a  way  that  causes  injury  rather 
than  benefit.  Hence  it  is  no  hardship,  but  rather  a  most  just  and  wise 
provision  against  want,  that  workingmen  have  a  certain  portion  regu- 
larly deducted  from  the  earnings  due  them.  This  portion  should  be  at 
once  transferred  to  trustees  approved  entirely  by  the  employed  and  of 
extreme  financial  soundness  and  integrity.  Funds  of  this  sort  afford  a 
most  important  provision  against  destitution,  disease  and  injury. 

Cooperative  associations  for  savings  and  loans  induce  frugality 
among  people  of  small  but  steady  earnings.     They  advance  the  cause 


COOPERATIVE    ASSOCIATIONS  123 

of  good  citizenship,  and  hence  improve  the  health  of  the  community. 
In  Philadelphia,  these  associations  are  very  abundant,  and  a  higher 
proportion  of  vi^age-earners  own  their  homes  there  than  in  any  other 
city  in  America.  Perhaps  it  is  as  a  consequence  of  this  that  extremists 
in  the  doctrines  of  socialism  or  anarchy  are  comparatively  rare  in  that 
city.  The  cooperative  savings  and  loan  associations  of  New  York 
State  are  founded  upon  a  method  and  system  which  seem  the  best  of 
any  in  America. 


LIGHTING 

Daylight  is  indispensable  to  health,  and,  like  pure  air,  it 
should  be  abundantly  supplied  to  all  living-rooms.  Some 
adults  appear  to  maintain  a  fair  degree  of  health  while 
following  occupations  that  allow  them  very  little  light 
besides  that  which  is  artificially  produced.  Yet  the  vital 
processes  of  the  human  body  are  more  perfectly  carried  on 
when  there  is  an  abundance  of  daylight.  Especially  do 
children  languish  and  fade  when,  because  of  extreme 
northern  latitude  and  the  winter  season  or  otherwise,  they 
are  deprived  of  daylight.  Like  plants,  all  higher  animals 
need  sunlight  or  at  least  diffused  daylight. 

In  darkness  not  only  do  harmful  germs  thrive  best,  but 
disease  processes  become  more  serious,  and  fatal  outcome 
of  illness  or  greater  resultant  weaknesses  follow  in  con- 
sequence of  restricted  natural  light.  Electric  light  has 
been  shown  to  have  a  certain  value  in  forcing  the  growth 
of  some  garden  vegetables  and  flowers.  Such  products 
appear  inferior  in  quality.  Inflamed  eyes  are  of  course  to 
be  guarded  carefully  from  any  bright  light. 

Bright  diffused  daylight  is  best  for  the  eyesight.  Such 
light  is  had  in  its  perfection  when  one  is  near  a  large 
window  that  is  on  the  unshaded  north  side  of  a  building. 
Uniform,  thin  white  clouds  are  agreeable  modifiers  of  such 
light.  Glare  is  very  bad  for  the  eyes,  whether  it  be  direct, 
as  from  the  sun  (or  from  electric  or  other  light),  or  re- 
flected from  water,  sand  or  white  surfaces.  It  can  be  kept 
from  the  eyes  somewhat  by  the  use  of  comfortable,  mild 
"  smoked-glass "    spectacles   (or  eye-glasses).      Grayish   or 


DAYLIGHT  I25 

buff-gray  Holland  window  shades  on  spring  rollers  are  best 
for  excluding  an  excess  of  sunlight  from  rooms.  It  is 
best  that  curtains  be  away  from  the  upper  portion  of  the 
window  as  much  as  possible ;  for  the  upper  part  of  a 
window  throws  much  more  light  into  the  room  than  does 
the  lower  part. 

In  school-rooms,  studies,  workshops,  etc.,  the  light  should 
be  such  that  any  person  of  healthy,  normal  eyesight  can 
read,  write  or  examine  the  usual  work  continuously  without 
any  effort  of  accommodation  of  the  eye  and  without  ex- 
periencing any  fatigue.  When  the  light  is  insufficient  and 
the  eyes  have  therefore  to  be  nearer  than  usual  to  the  work 
in  order  to  see  well,  this  produces  strain  and  fatigue  which 
in  the  end  are  harmful  to  the  eyesight.  Bright  light  is 
therefore  best  for  work  ;  yet  the  light  must  not  be  dazzling 
when  it  reaches  the  eye. 

To  test  whether  the  daylight  in  the  darker  portions  of  a 
school-room  or  workshop,  for  instance,  is  suitably  strong  on 
an  average  day,  the  standard  test-type,  as  furnished  by  all 
opticians,  can  be  employed  with  normal  eyes  at  the  proper 
distances  as  specified  on  the  tables  or  on  accompanying 
directions.  Preliminary  or  corrective  tests  should  be  made 
with  the  same  test-type  and  by  the  same  eyes  in  places 
where  the  light  is  ample.  Practically  this  is  a  very  useful 
means  of  fixing  a  standard,  and  such  a  simple  test  is  readily 
understood  and  appreciated  by  those  in  whose  power  and 
province  it  lies  to  remedy  the  deficiency. 

A  more  precise  and  mathematical  demonstration  of  the 
exact  amount  and  quality  of  the  light  that  reaches  any  given 
part  of  a  room  is  afforded  by  the  use  of  the  Weber  photo- 
meter. This,  like  other  apparatus  for  measuring  the  angle 
of  the  light  and  the  amount  of  visible  sky,  is  excellent. 
But  very  few  people  are  likely  to  possess  these  instruments 
of  precision ;  and  the  much  simpler  means  (that  is,  of 
using  test-type  as  above  indicated)  will  be  found  sufificient. 


T26  LIGHTING 

Technically  speaking,  the  light  in  any  part  of  a  workshop 
or  of  a  room  in  which  one  reads  should,  even  on  cloudy 
days,  according  to  Cohn,  have  at  least  an  illuminating 
power  equal  to  that  given  by  ten  standard-candles  that  are 
from  thirty-nine  to  forty  inches  away  {ten  meter- candles). 

Daylight  should  be  as  little  as  possible  obscured  by  trees, 
buildings  or  other  things  moving  or  standing  between  the 
sky  and  the  window  through  which  the  light  enters.  Noth- 
ing should  intervene  between  the  source  of  light  and  the 
page  read  or  the  piece  of  work  upon  which  one  is  engaged. 
For  one  who  is  writing,  the  light  ought  to  come  somewhat 
sidewise,  as  from  the  left  and  slightly  from  the  front,  so  that 
the  arm  or  hand  does  not  shade  the  paper  by  obstructing  the 
light.  The  desks  in  business  offices  could  often  be  greatly 
improved  in  this  respect.  If  directly  facing  a  bright  light, 
some  sort  of  shade  should  be  used  to  prevent  all  glare  from 
entering  directly  into  the  eyes.  For  reading,  the  light  may 
come  from  the  side  or  over  the  shoulder. 

The  illuminating  power  of  the  daylight  that  reaches 
any  object  in  an  ordinary  room  is  almost  inversely  propor- 
tional to  the  square  of  the  distance  of  that  object  from  the 
window.  Thus  on  a  page  one  yard  away  from  an  ordinary 
window,  the  light  is  four  times  as  strong  as  on  a  page  two 
yards  away,  and  sixteen  times  as  strong  as  when  the  page  is 
four  yards  away.  Hence  the  nearer  the  student's  or  clerk's 
desk  or  the  workman's  bench  and  work  are  to  a  window 
where  glare  is  absent  or  guarded  against,  the  better  for  the 
eyesight.  As  mentioned  in  speaking  of  school-rooms,  windows 
should  reach  as  high  up  toward  the  ceiling  as  possible  when 
the  further  (dark)  side  of  a  room  is  used  for  work  requiring 
light. 

The  higher  the  window  through  which  light  from  the 
sky  falls  into  a  room,  the  better  the  light.  Hence  it  follows 
naturally  that  we  ought  not  to  darken  any  living-rooms  by 
draperies,  hangings,  lambrequins  or  anything  else  that  ob- 


DAYLIGHT  I27 

structs  the  light  coming  in  at  the  upper  part  of  the  window. 
If,  in  spite  of  this  and  other  health  considerations,  heavy- 
curtains  are  -put  up  in  libraries  or  other  working-rooms,  they 
are  preferably  to  be  so  hung  that  they  can  readily  be  pushed 
away  back  to  either  side  when  light  is  needed.  Where  cur- 
tains are  used  to  insure  greater  privacy,  these  should  be 
limited  to  the  lower  part  of  the  window  as  much  as  possible. 
A  roller  can  be  so  arranged  as  to  allow  a  shade  to  pull  from 
below  upward.  Thereby  it  effects  its  purpose  and  yet 
allows  the  light  to  come  in  through  the  upper  part  of  the 
window.  There  are  curtain  devices  which  cover,  as  desired, 
any  particular  part  of  a  window  ;  but  they  are  found  to  be 
of  limited  popularity. 

Open  daylight  from  a  surface  of  sky  direct  into  a  room 
is  best.  Yet  this  is,  in  narrow  city  streets  and  courts,  not 
always  to  be  had,  and  lower  rooms  may  there  be  very  dark. 
So,  mirrors  are  at  times  used  outside  of  windows  to  throw 
light  into  a  room,  and  surfaces  are  whitened  to  increase  the 
amount  of  light  reflected.  These  means  are  a  help,  but  of 
necessity  an  incomplete  one.  Reflected  light  (glaring  or  not) 
from  a  whitened  wall  is  inferior  to  direct  light  from  the  sky, 
even  if  that  be  clouded.  In  "  ells  "  and  in  upper  rooms  that 
are  surrounded  by  higher  and  light-obstructing  buildings, 
an  excellent  means  of  improving  and  increasing  the  light  is 
to  have  a  large  glass  window  in  the  ceiling. 

Light  reflected  from  the  walls  of  a  room,  if  they  are  not  of 
a  dark  color,  is  an  aid  to  the  brightness  of  the  apartment. 
If  this  light  be  unpleasantly  strong  and  glaring,  it  is  to  be 
modified.  Dark  surfaces  reflect  light  poorly,  whether  they  be 
on  walls  or  in  the  shape  of  cloth  or  other  substance  upon 
which  one  is  working.  Therefore  blackboards  on  the  walls 
of  school-rooms  are  by  many  considered  as  not  so  desirable 
for  the  eyesight  as  "whiteboards"  on  which  the- writing  is 
done  in  black.  Thus  far,  however,  very  little  of  practical 
value  has  been  effected  in  this  respect. 


128  LIGHTING 

Artificial  Light 

Artificial  light  is  always  inferior  to  good  daylight,  even 
apart  from  any  consideration  of  the  more  or  les's  unhealthful 
products  given  off  in  large  quantities  by  all  artificial  lights 
excepting  the  various  electric  lamps.  All  are  much  yellower 
than  is  desirable,  and  all  involve  a  certain  amount  of  danger 
from  their  use.  A  good  light  has  as  few  of  these  defects  as 
possible,  is  steady,  briUiant  and  must  usually  be  inexpen- 
sive. 

Candles  are  the  most  costly  and  defective  of  the  usual 
means  employed.  These  primitive  and  picturesque  lights 
are  not  much  used  where  better  can  be  had.  Their  porta- 
bility and  certain  other  qualities  recommend  them  for  a 
large  number  of  mines,  especially  in  the  western  mountains. 
As  with  various  oils,  the  substance  of  candles  forms  combus- 
tible gas  (hydrogen)  by  the  heat  of  the  flame.  Carbon  is 
also  present.  Its  particles  glow  in  the  flame  owing  to  the 
heat  of  the  hydrogen  burning  in  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  This 
glow  of  the  carbon  gives  the  brilliancy.  If  not  enough  air  be 
furnished  for  the  amount  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  (that  the 
candle  material  supplies)  to  burn  up  in,  or  if  too  great  an 
amount  of  carbon  be  present,  the  candle  "  smokes."  The 
same  lack  of  air  or  excess  of  carbon  is  found  also  to  be  the 
cause  when  lamps  (or  other  lights)  smoke. 

In  such  cases,  the  carbon  fails  to  be  consumed  by  com- 
bustion, and  hence  the  familiar  sooty  particles  (lampblack) 
are  given  off  into  the  air.  Accordingly,  glass  chimneys  are 
desirable,  even  with  candles,  since  they  not  only  prevent 
unsteadiness,  but  also  concentrate  more  oxygen-containing 
air  upon  the  carbon,  hydrogen  and  other  elements  of  the 
glowing  flame.  The  wick  should  also  be  small,  if  soft  fats 
are  used  for  candles,  as  they  then  smoke  less.  Hard  fats, 
wax,  and  spermaceti  are  best.  The  wick  ought  to  have 
been  dipped  in  boric  acid  or  some  other  substance  that 
causes  it  to  burn  to  ashes. 


ARTIFICIAL    LIGHT  I29 

Like  other  light-producing  materials,  candles  give  off  heat, 
water  and  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  standard  "  candle,"  by 
which  the  strength  of  a  light  is  measured,  varies.  One  ac- 
cepted standard-candle  is  made  of  spermaceti  so  that  120 
grains  are  burned  in  one  hour. 

Animal  oils  (such  as  whale  oil  and  lard  oil)  are  nowadays 
used  much  less  than  formerly  for  lighting.  They  are  much 
safer  than  the  various  volatile  fractional-distillation  products 
of  the  petroleum-refining  process,  such  as  benzine,  rhigolene, 
naphtha,  etc.  These  are  dangerously  explosive,  and  their 
use  ought  to  be  very  limited.  Gasoline  is  considerably 
used  in  some  places  such  as  isolated  hotels,  and  in  cities  it 
is  used  by  a  few  large  establishments  because  it  is  cheaper 
than  gas.  It  is,  however,  dangerous,  and  is  liable  to  give 
off  very  disagreeable  and  unhealthful  gases  into  the  air. 

Kerosene  oil  (refined  petroleum)  of  the  best  quality  is 
superior  to  all  of  these  for  domestic  or  other  general  Hght- 
ing.  Kerosene  has  a  much  higher  boiling  point  than  the 
more  inflammable  petroleum  products.  In  the  process  of 
manufacture  it  distils  over  at  a  temperature  of  from  300°  to 
480°  F.  Its  specific  gravity  is  a  trifle  more  than  four-fifths 
of  that  of  water.  With  the  immense  use  of  refined  petroleum, 
it  is  easy  to  procure  it  always  of  sufficient  purity.  Yet  small 
retail  dealers  sell  much  oil  that  is  below  the  required  stand- 
ard. Without  constant  inspection  tests,  low-grade  oil  is  apt 
to  be  supplied.  Legal  restrictions  upon  the  sale  of  danger- 
ous illuminating  oil  should  be  rigorously  enforced.  If  of  in- 
ferior quality,  kerosene  is  both  dangerous  and  ill-smelling. 
Instead  of  using  the  more  accurate  and  reliable  test  appa- 
ratus, and  as  a  rough  test,  a  rather  flat  watch-glass  contain- 
ing a  few  drops  of  kerosene  may  be  held  in  the  palm.  As 
soon  as  it  has  become  well  warmed  by  the  heat  of  the  hand, 
a  lighted  match  is  touched  to  it  ;  yet  it  does  not  then  burn 
if  pure  and  fit  for  lamps. 

Kerosene  lamps  have  either  flat  or  round  wicks.  The 
9 


130  LIGHTING 

latter  are  hollow  and  fitted  upon  a  short  tube,  into  which  air 
enters  from  below  and  then  becomes  warmed  as  it  rises  or 
is  drawn  up  to  the  flame,  where  it  produces  perfect  combus- 
tion. These  round  burners  make  a  very  perfect  light.  A 
familiar  form  of  this  is  the  "  student's  lamp."  When  used 
by  people  who  are  fairly  careful,  this,  at  its  best,  is  prefer- 
able to  a  gas  flame  for  the  reason  that  it  is  not  so  hot  as  the 
argand  burner,  and  because,  although  giving  off  much  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  good  kerosene  produces  very  much  less  of 
the  various  more  harmful  gaseous  poisons  that  enter  the  air 
with  the  use  of  ordinary  illuminating  gas.  It  gives,  besides, 
a  steadier  light,  being  independent  of  all  changes  in  press- 
ure to  which  gas  is  liable. 

The  more  carbon  we  can  cause  to  combine  chemically 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  the  more  hydrogen  there  is 
used  up,  the  more  complete  is  the  combustion,  and  by  con- 
sequence the  hotter  is  the  flame  and  the  more  brilliant  is 
the  light.  So,  in  addition  to  employing  the  hollow  round 
wick,  we  further  introduce  a  contraction  of  the  glass  of  the 
chimney  near  the  burning  oil  above  the  top  of  the  wick,  in 
order  to  render  the  combustion  more  perfect.  A  Prussian 
commission,  that  recently  investigated  the  question,  deter- 
mined that  lamps  which  used  round  wicks  were  less  liable 
to  explode  than  the  lamps  where  the  wick  was  flat. 

Lamps  should  ordinarily  be  made  of  metal,  because  of 
the  danger  of  breakage  in  case  that  all  is  of  glass.  Yet  care- 
lessly constructed  metal  lamps  are  apt  to  heat  the  oil  too 
much.  A  funnel-shaped  lamp  shade  narrowed  at  the  top 
and  large  and  open  at  the  bottom,  made  of  glass  or  porce- 
lain that  is  dark  outside  and  white  and  polished  within,  is 
valuable  for  close  work  and  shields  the  eyes,  although  of 
course  cutting  off  very  much  light  from  the  remainder  of 
the  room.  A  cloth  shield  interposed  between  the  light  and 
the  head  of  one  who  is  working  near  the  lamp  lessens  the 
heat  that  is  felt  and  also  relieves  the  eyes  from  the  glare. 


DANGERS    FROM    OIL    AND    GAS 


131 


The  dangers  01  allowing  the  use  of  kerosene  for  quick  kin- 
dling of  fires  are  so  well  known  that  no  further  warning 
against  such  harmful  practice  should  be  needed  here.  It  is 
best  to  lower  the  wick  somewhat  before  blowing  out  a  lamp- 
light, and  it  is  slightly  safer  to  blow  from  above.  The  most 
serious  cause  of  accidents  with  lamps  is  the  custom  of  re- 
plenishing the  oil  without  having  first  extinguished  the  light. 

Illuminating  gas  consists  essentially  of  carburetted 
hydrogen.  It  contains  various  gaseous  compounds  of  the 
"marsh  gas  "  and  "  olefiant  gas  "  series.  Even  the  best  con- 
tains nearly  ten  per  cent,  of  carbonic  oxide  (a  very  poison- 
ous and  odorless  gas).  Other  gases  may  also  be  present. 
Ammonia,  whenever  present,  is  considered  objectionable ; 
for,  by  burning,  it  may  produce  the  cyanide  of  ammonia,  a 
poison.  The  peculiar  odor  of  illuminating  gas  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  naphthaline,  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  bisul- 
phide of  carbon.  This  latter  comes  chiefly  from  the  iron 
pyrites  which  is  present  in  most  of  the  gas-coal  used  by  us. 
On  combustion  in  our  rooms,  it  forms  sulphurous  acid,  which 
becomes  sulphuric  acid  by  mingling  with  the  moist  air. 
Nitrous  acid,  if  present  in  gas,  is  a  harmful  element. 

Gas  can  be  made  from  anything  that  contains  carbon  and 
hydrogen.  The  U.  S.  Special  Consular  Reports  for  1891 
(on  Gas  in  Foreign  Countries)  mention  various  cities  of  the 
world  where  crude  petroleum,  resin,  wood  and  other  sub- 
stances are  used.  Oil  gas  is  excellent  for  railway-car  use, 
as  it  can  be  compressed  more  satisfactorily  than  ordinary 
gas.     Bituminous  coal  is  considered  the  best  material. 

Several  different  processes  of  dry  distillation  in  iron  re- 
torts are  employed.  Of  the  details,  it  is  particularly  impor- 
tant that  the  washing  and  other  purification  be  carefully 
carried  out.  It  is  to  the  interest  of  the  gas  companies  that 
certain  impurities  be  removed.  Ammonia  for  instance  is, 
like  coke  and  the  coal-tar  products,  a  valuable  article  of  sale. 
It  furthermore  attacks  the  mechanism  of  gas-meters,  and 


132  LIGHTING 

causes  them  to  be  irregular  and  to  register  an  actually- 
smaller  amount  than  the  consumer  receives. 

The  most  dangerously  poisonous  constituent  of 
illuminating  gas  is,  as  above  indicated,  carbonic  oxide  (car- 
bonic monoxide,  CO)  gas.  This  is  always  abundantly 
present.  It  is  several  times  as  abundant  in  "  water  gas  "  as 
in  ordinary  gas.  Such  water  gas  furnishes  the  chief  supply 
for  New  York  City  and  other  American  communities,  and  is 
used  because  it  costs  less.  It  is  made  by  passing  water 
vapor  over  surfaces  of  burning  coals.  It  is  "  enriched  "  by 
adding  naphtha  and  other  hydrocarbons  rich  in  carbon. 
Naphthaline  is  added  to  produce  the  albocarbon  light,  which 
is  white  and  brilliant,  but  is  apt  to  smell  very  bad.  The 
laws  of  some  countries  prohibit  the  manufacture  of  "  water 
gas."  Fortunately,  the  very  harmful  carbonic  oxide  gas, 
always  present  in  the  gas  that  we  burn,  is  there  associated 
with  the  strong-smelling  gases  above  mentioned,  and  which 
usually  betray  its  escape  from  gas-pipes. 

Serious  cases  may  occur,  especially  in  winter,  where  gas 
leaks  from  a  street  main  that  is  broken  or  otherwise  defect- 
ive. When,  under  such  circumstances,  the  other  gases  are 
taken  up  by  the  soil,  this  odorless  gas  is  drawn  into  warmed 
houses.  Fatal  cases  have  occurred  in  this  way,  even  where 
the  street  had  not  an  impermeable  pavement.  Many  of  the 
vague  ailme7its  which  have  been  ascribed  to  ^^  sewer  gas"  are 
probably  due  to  escaping  or  imperfectly  burnt  illumi?iating  gas. 
Therefrom  occur  headache,  prostration  and  all  too  often 
the  more  serious  symptoms  such  as  an  unconsciousness 
from  which  not  even  bleeding  or  any  other  known  remedy 
will  rescue  the  unfortunate  victim. 

That  illuminating  gas  is  a  noteworthy  cause  of  more  or 
less  serious  illness  is  proven,  in  so  far  as  the  more  obvious 
instances  are  concerned,  by  the  frequency  with  which  such 
cases  are  reported  in  the  daily  papers.  Many  of  these 
accidents  are  explainable  by  a  careless  or  stupid  neglect  of 


DANGERS    OF    ILLUMINATING    GAS 


133 


occupants  of  rooms  to  turn  off  the  gas  properly.  A  few 
others  are  due  to  a  custom,  which  some  hotels  have,  of 
shutting  off  the  gas  from  their  rooms  during  the  night.  In 
this  way  a  light  left  burning  low  (and  not  recognized  outside 
the  room)  is  of  course  extinguished  without  being  turned  off 
in  the  room.  Through  the  unstopped  gas-cock,  therefore, 
the  gas  enters  the  room  early  in  the  morning. 

It  is  generally  recognized  that  much  gas  escapes  from  gas- 
mains  and  pipes.  It  is  stated  that  the  amount  of  gas  lost 
from  London  gas-works  amounts  to  nearly  one  thousand 
million  cubic  feet  a  year.  In  New  York,  the  loss  is  proba- 
bly about  the  same.  To  detect  leakage  within  a  house  or 
other  building,  one  should  examine  the  indicators  of  a  gas- 
meter  carefully.  If  any  increase  in  the  amount  is  recorded 
during  a  time  when  no  gas  is  being  burned  (and  not  leaking 
through  the  burners)  a  thorough  test  must  be  made.  To  test 
house-pipes,  they  are  stopped  at  the  ends.  Then  air  having 
a  few  drops  of  ether  in  it  is  pumped  in.  Wherever  an  odor 
leaks  out  of  the  pipe,  the  defective  place  is  attended  to 
before  gas  is  allowed  to  enter  the  house. 

Because  of  the  serious  dangers  associated  with  its  use, 
even  for  those  who  employ  the  utmost  possible  precautions, 
it  is  of  extreme  importance  to  the  health  of  all  that  the  gas 
supply  be  of  excellent  quality  and  purity,  and  that  the  pipes 
through  which  it  is  distributed  be  sound  and  jointed  with 
the  best  mechanical  skill.  Subways,  in  which  the  pipes  are 
kept  dry  and  can  be  constantly  inspected,  are  much  prefer- 
able to  the  usual  method  of  burying  gas  mains  in  the  earth 
underneath  streets. 

Valves,  gas-cocks  and  other  means  for  shutting  off  gas 
must,  like  all  gas-piping,  be  perfectly  tight.  Their  mechan- 
ism should  be  perfect,  and  the  simpler  they  are,  the  better. 
Electric  and  other  convenient  but  complex  gas-lighting 
appliances  that  work  automatically  are  at  times  dangerous. 
After  prolonged   absence    of  a  family  from  a   house,  the 


134  LIGHTING 

rooms  need  to  be  well  aired  even  if  the  gas  has,  for  a  long 
time,  been  shut  off  at  the  street.  At  such  times  the  ex- 
plosive nature  of  the  product  of  the  mingling  of  gas  with 
atmospheric  air  should  always  be  borne  in  mind.  When 
from  13  to  20  per  cent,  of  illuminating  gas  is  present  in  air, 
the  compound  is  highly  explosive.  If  the  percentage  of  the 
gas  mixed  with  the  air  be  from  5  to  13,  or  from  20  to  30, 
the  mixture  is  inflammable.  Beyond  these  limits  it  is  not 
so ;  yet  the  danger  of  poisoning  is  always  present  wherever 
the  gas  leaks. 

When  burners  receive  so  little  gas  that  their  flames  are 
low,  they  flicker,  and  also  the  combustion  of  the  gas  is  then 
less  perfect  than  when  they  burn  with  full  force  or  nearly 
that.  If  there  be  an  unduly  great  pressure  of  gas,  this 
tends  to  make  the  gas  flame  "blow."  Then  the  gas-cock 
has  to  be  turned  off  a  little  so  that  the  gas  enters  the 
burner  under  somewhat  lessened  pressure.  The  burner 
should  be  so  constructed  as  to  burn  up  the  gas  completely 
and  to  prevent  as  much  as  possible  the  escape  of  any  of  the 
harmful  components  and  products  into  the  air  of  rooms. 
Yet  an  excess  of  air  must  not  be  supplied  ;  for  that  causes 
the  carbon  to  be  wholly  burnt  up,  as  in  the  Bunsen  burner 
used  in  laboratories.  There  the  carbon  does  not  remain 
incandescent.  If  not  enough  air  be  supplied,  the  carbon 
goes  off  into  the  air  as  soot,  and  also  a  considerable  amount 
of  gas  is  then  apt  to  escape. 

For  any  work  or  reading  requiring  good,  steady  light, 
the  usual  "  fishtail,"  "  batwing  "  or  other  burner  is  inferior  to 
an  average  kerosene-oil  light  if  that  be  practicable.  Even  the 
little  flat-wick  oil  lamp  with  a  globe  of  water  between  the 
little  chimney-protected  flame  and  the  work  upon  which  it 
concentrates  and  increases  the  light,  is  steadier  than  the  gas 
flame,  and  therefore  better  for  the  eyes  of  a  workman  if 
the  light  be  broad  enough.  In  summer  it  certainly  is  cooler. 
The  various  modifications  of  the  ordinary  gas-burners  are 


GAS-BURNERS 


135 


numerous,  but  no  one  of  all  these  is  demonstrated  to  be 
notably  superior  to  the  others.  Gas  is  more  convenient 
than  oil,  and  therefore  certain  to  be  used  in  rooms  despite 
its  dangers.  The  best  burner,  although  it  requires  the  most 
gas  of  all,  is  some  one  of  the  various  modifications  of  the 
argand  burner. 

The  Welsbach  burner  causes  the  gas  to  be  completely  burned  up,  and 
the  light  comes  from  the  presence  of  an  incandescent  mantle  which  is 
heated  by  the  burning  gas.  At  its  best,  this  burner  gives  a  steady, 
white  light.  It  has  not  proved  quite  as  satisfactory  as  was  hoped  that 
it  would.  Those  who  recommended  it 'highly  at  first  do  not  all  appear 
to  indorse  it  unqualifiedly  at  present.  Where  "  fuel  gas"  or  water  gas 
that  is  not  enriched  (as  by  the  addition  of  naphtha)  is  used,  this  burner 
seems  very  economical.  In  any  case  it  is  better  than  most  argand 
burners,  until  the  incandescent  mantle  used  with  this  peculiar  burner 
burns  out.     The  mantle  can  be  renewed  at  a  cost  of  fifty  cents. 

For  large  assembly  rooms,  theatres,  etc.,  the  Siemens'  *'  regenera- 
tive" burner  (see  Fig.  16)  may  be  recommended. 
It,  like  all  large  burners  used  under  favorable  con- 
ditions, gets  a  relatively  large  amount  of  light 
from  a  given  outlay  of  gas.  The  gas  becomes 
somewhat  warmed  before  reaching  the  flame,  and 
thereby  the  burner  secures  economy  and  better 
combustion.  But,  what  is  of  extreme  hygienic 
consequence,  it  also  has  a  small  flue-tube  con- 
trived so  as  to  carry  off  the  waste  gas  (if  there  be 
any)  and  the  inevitable  products  of  combustion. 
1 1  also  heats  a  room  less  than  other  burners.  Such 
a  principle  can  be  applied  to  almost  any  burner, 
but  this  is  too  seldom  done.  With  gas-stoves, 
there  must  invariably  be  some  sort  of  perfectly 
tight  flue-tube  used  to  carry  off  the  harmful  prod- 
ucts and  prevent  them  from  entering  the  air  of  the  room  in  which  the 
gas  is  burning  (see  Fig.  19). 

All  artificial  lights  excepting  electricity  heat  the  air  con- 
siderably and  also  contaminate  it.  A  gas  flame  of  only  ten- 
candle  brilliancy  produces,  in  one  hour,  four  times  as  much 
carbonic  acid  gas  and  five  times  as  much  heat  as  an  adult 


Fig.  16. 


136  LIGHTING 

human  being  does.  A  kerosene-oil  flame  develops  only  half 
as  much  heat  as  comes  from  a  gas  flame  of  equal  brilliancy, 
although  it  produces  even  more  of  the  undesirable  carbonic 
acid  gas.  A  kerosene-oil  flame  gives  out  into  the  air  much 
less  heat  and  carbonic  acid  gas  than  result  from  candles 
that  make  a  light  of  the  same  brilliancy. 

All  of  these  accordingly  contaminate  the  air  of  apartments 
in  which  they  are  burned  ;  but  ordinary  gas,  from  the  pecu- 
liarity of  its  manufacture,  is  certain  to  give  off  greater  quan- 
tities of  very  harmful  substances.  Hence  the  less  gas  used 
in  a  house,  and  the  fewer  pipes  and  burners  there,  the 
better.  Some  ventilating  arrangement  by  which  the  harm- 
ful products  are  carried  off  out  of  the  room  is  necessary  if 
the  best  health  is  to  be  maintained.  For  every  cubic  foot  of 
gas  burnt  in  a  room  in  an  hour,  at  least  ten  cubic  feet  of 
fresh  air  should  be  allowed  every  minute.  So,  every  single 
burner  consuming  four  feet  of  gas  per  hour  needs  at  least 
forty  or  fifty  cubic  feet  of  air  a  minute.  This  will  be  further 
considered  in  the  chapter  on  Ventilation. 

Electric  light,  when  at  its  best,  is  much  safer  and  better 
than  other  artificial  light.  Although  it  has  occasional  dangers, 
these  are  limited  to  the  effects  of  the  conducting  wire  and 
so  are  more  apt  to  be  controlled  than  are  those  of  gas.  The 
arc-light  is  the  cheaper  of  the  two  kinds  used  and  gives  the 
whiter  light  ;  but,  owing  to  its  very  glaring  and  unsteady 
quality  and  its  size,  it  is  suited  only  for  very  large  halls  or 
out-door  spaces.  The  other  kind,  the  incandescent^  is  steadier 
and  can  be  employed  on  a  study-table  instead  of  a  "  stu- 
dent's lamp  "  if  there  be  a  shade  to  keep  the  glare  out  of 
the  eyes.  It  is  then  theoretically  of  better  quality  than  the 
oil  light.  Practically  this  is  not  always  the  case.  If  the 
oil  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  if  from  two  to  five  minutes 
of  time  be  given  to  prepare  the  lamp  every  day,  the  oil  light, 
although  of  course  quite  inferior  to  good  daylight,  has  an 
agreeable  steadiness  and  uniformity  which  the  electric  lamps 


ELECTRIC    ILLUMINATION  I37 

do  not  constantly  possess  in  their  present  imperfect  develop- 
ment. 

Electric  light  is  produced  by  causing  an  electric  current 
to  glow  by  passing  through  carbon.  In  the  arc-light,  the 
carbon  is  in  the  shape  of  two  rods,  each  a  few  inches  long 
(the  positive  above  the  negative)  and  separated  by  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch.  A  glass  cup  should  be  beneath  the 
glowing  light  in  order  to  catch  the  little  bits  of  heated  carbon 
that  become  detached,  chiefly  from  the  upper  (hollowed-out) 
rod.  In  the  incandescent  electric  light,  the  carbon  is  a  fila- 
ment within  a  pear-shaped  glass  bulb  that  is  air-tight  and 
has  the  air  exhausted.  These  deteriorate  and  the  light  be- 
comes poorer  after  they  have  been  used  a  varying  number 
of  hours.  It  is  claimed  that  they  can  be  made  to  last  for 
1,200  hours  or  more.  Practically,  as  they  are  supplied  us  in 
America,  they  usually  do  not  last  for  even  half  that  time. 
When  a  bulb  is  used  up  (as  revealed  by  deterioration  in  the 
quality  of  the  illumination),  a  new  one  is  put  on. 

Dangerously  strong  electric  currents  are  too  often 
used  for  lighting  (and  other)  purposes.  We  can  assume 
that  a  constant  current  of  loo  "volts"  is  not  dangerous. 
Yet  an  alternate  current  of  i6o  "volts"  can  kill  a  human 
being.  In  view  of  the  numerous  fatal  injuries  that  have 
occurred  from  using  too  strong  a  current,  it  is  safest  to 
limit  the  "voltage"  to  120,  as  is  the  usage  in  some  places. 
The  wires  should  also  be  kept  well  insulated  and  not 
allowed  to  come  into  contact  with  telegraph  wires  or  those 
used  with  telephones ;  for  otherwise  fires  may  be  caused. 
Electric  currents  cause  many  fires,  and  the  best  manage- 
ment of  the  dangerous  wires  is  at  present  very  perplexing 
to  insurance  experts.  Workmen  attending  to  the  main- 
tenance of  such  wires  should  be  required  to  wear  rubber 
gloves  and  to  use  much  caution. 

The  hygienic  superiority  of  electricity  over  gas  for 
illumination  of  houses  or  workshops  lies  chiefly  in  the  fact 


138  LIGHTING 

that  it  produces  none  (or  almo3t  none)  of  the  poisonous 
or  other  gases  given  off  from  gas-pipes  and  gas  flames. 
Furthermore  it  gives  less  than  a  tenth  as  much  heat  as 
comes  from  the  average  gas-burners,  the  light  in  both  cases 
being  of  the  same  candle-power,  and  no  device  being  used 
to  carry  off  the  gas-heat  as  is  so  well  done  by  the  flue  of  the 
Siemens'  burner.  Even  the  hottest  electric  light  is  only 
one-sixth  as  hot  as  a  hollow  round  kerosene  flame,  both 
being  equally  strong.  The  above  comparisons  are  made 
from  the  observation  of  incandescent  lamps.  The  arc-light 
is  a  much  cooler  lamp,  yet  its  use,  as  already  said,  is  limited. 

The  color  quality  of  the  incandescent  light,  such  as  we 
use  in-doors,  is  hygienically  slightly  better  than  that  of  other 
artificial  lights.  Yet  the  electric  light  has  unquestionably  a 
yellowish  quality,  usually  aggravated  by  the  shades  used. 
Ground-glass  bulbs  are  not  so  much  of  an  improvement 
over  ordinary  ones  as  is  supposed  by  some.  Bulbs  or  shades 
that  are  slightly  blue  are  better,  as  they  absorb  some  of  the 
yellow  light.  Shades  and  dark  eyeglasses,  although  wasteful 
of  light  or  inconvenient,  should  be  used  to  protect  the  eyes 
from  the  glare  of  the  electric  light,  as  this  very  bright  glow 
can  be  harmful.  The  arc-light  is  most  so  ;  for  it  is  more 
like  the  light  of  the  sun  in  its  quality. 

Electric  light  may  fairly  be  considered  the  best  of  our  arti- 
ficial lights^  if  we  take  everything  into  consideration.  But 
it  has  not  yet  become  sufficiently  perfected  to  have  dis- 
placed others.  Indeed,  it  is  always  well  to  have  oil  or  some 
other  light  to  be  employed  whenever  needed  as  a  substitute 
or  accessory.  Halls,  where  panic  or  other  danger  might 
arise  because  of  total  darkness  resulting  from  an  accident  to 
the  electric  apparatus  or  to  the  wires  that  conduct  the  cur- 
rent, need  to  be  provided  with  a  few  oil  lamps  always  in 
use.  Of  course  this  does  not  apply  to  places  where  in- 
flammable or  explosive  substances  are  stored  or  manu- 
factured.    Theatres,    hotels,   etc.,    should   however  always 


ELECTRIC    LIGHTS 


139 


have  a  few  lamps,  lighted  by  oil  or  candles,  at  stairways  and 
in  halls.     Thereby  at  times  many  lives  may  be  saved. 

Owing  to  its  unnecessarily  great  cost,  electricity  is  more 
of  a  luxury  than  it  ought  to  be.  Batteries  are  a  much 
more  expensive  means  of  supplying  electric  light  than  are 
dynamo-machines.  A  ''  dynamo "  requires  one  nominal 
horse-power  for  every  ten  or  twelve  lights  of  16  candle- 
power.  In  an  establishment  such  as  a  hotel  or  manufactory, 
that  works  its  own  dynamo-machine  to  produce  electricity, 
the  electric  light  is  cheaper  than  gas.  It  is  exceedingly 
cheap  to  produce  where  water-power  (even  though  not 
very  near)  is  abundant  and  to  be  had  by  simply  introducing 
a  turbine  wheel  to  utilize  the  power  that  otherwise  would 
be  wasted.  One  1,000-candle-power  arc-lamp  suffices  to 
illuminate  700  square  yards  of  floor  surface  in  a  workshop, 
or  ten  times  as  much  open  space.  For  street  lighting, 
twenty  or  thirty  thousand  square  yards  may  be  supplied  by 
such  a  light.  In  rooms  it  is  well  to  allow  at  least  one  20- 
candle-power  incandescent  light  for  every  thousand  cubic 
feet  of  room  space. 


BUILDINGS   AND   STREETS 

Building-sites  should  be  clean  and  dry  and  ought  also 
to  allow  abundant  fresh  air  to  all  occupants  of  the  structures 
erected  there.  Gravel  and  other  porous  soils  with  perme- 
able subsoils  are  to  be  preferred.  (See  page  2.)  In  any 
case,  the  ground  should  be  so  well  drained  artificially,  if  not 
naturally,  that  the  ground-water  does  not  rise  within  several 
feet  of  the  cellar  or  walls  of  the  house.  Wherever  subsoil 
drains  are  laid,  coarse  gravel  should  be  thrown  in  along  the 
course  of  these  drains  ;  for  gravel  favors  drainage,  and  the 
outflow  is  thereby  in  part  at  least  provided  for  whenever 
any  accident  happens  to  the  drain. 

To  prevent  water  from  the  soil  rising  into  the  lower  part 
of  the  house,  the  cellar  should  have  concrete  floors  and  walls 
overlaid  with  asphalt  or  otherwise  made  water-tight.  It  is 
also  desirable  that  this  layer  be  tight  enough  to  keep  out 
gases  that  may  chance  to  enter  from  leaky  pipes.  The 
foundation  walls  keep  dryer  when  by  the  use  of  cement  on 
the  outside  or  by  other  means  they  are  made  impermeable 
to  moisture.  In  loamy  or  moist  soils  a  ditch-like  depres- 
sion, between  the  water-tight  foundation  wall  and  the  ground 
beyond,  serves  to  catch  what  moisture  would  ooze  out  of  the 
ground  and  come  against  the  wall.  This  ditch  should  have 
a  drain  at  its  lowest  part,  and  it  may  need  to  be  covered  in, 
if  water  from  the  surface  be  liable  to  flow  into  it. 

Bushes  add  to  the  moisture  of  the  soil,  and,  when  near 
the  house-wall,  they  should  be  removed  if  the  soil  be  only 
slightly  permeable  to  water.  Through  thickets  of  bushes, 
any  excess  of  ground-water  does  not  evaporate  so  quickly 
as  through  uncovered  turf.    While  a  few  high  trees,  suitably 


THE    HOUSE    AND    ITS    SURROUNDINGS  I4I 

placed,  serve  to  intercept  the  fiercest  rays  of  a  tropical  sun, 
shade  trees  over  and  about  a  house  in  cooler  climates  are 
undesirable,  from  a  hygienic  point  of  view,  since  they  lessen 
the  healthful  force  of  the  sun  and  wind.  As  a  wind-break 
for  a  house  in  an  exposed  or  level  situation,  trees  are  desir- 
able to  the  northward  and  northwestward  or  otherwise  so 
disposed  as  to  afford  shelter  against  the  bleakest  winds  in 
cold  localities.  It  should  be  remembered  that,  like  surfaces 
of  water,  trees  appear  to  intercept  "  malarial  "  air  currents. 
Thus  it  may  not  be  well  to  remove  a  grove  or  thicket  lying 
between  habitations  and  a  malarial  swamp  or  "  river  bottom." 

The  only  gases,  coming  from  the  ground,  that  require 
especial  precautions  to  be  taken  are  such  as  leak  from 
gas-mains  and  gas-pipes  and  those  due  to  the  nearness  of 
defective  sewers  and  privies.  These  should  constantly  be 
guarded  against.  Solid  and  liquid  uncleanliness  of  various 
sorts  in  and  on  the  ground  is  much  more  to  be  appre- 
hended than  any  gases  other  than  illuminating  gas.  The 
ground  must  therefore  be  kept  quite  clean  of  all  house 
waste. 

Where  building-sites  are  not  expensive,  it  is  the  custom  to 
build  houses  quite  separate  from  neighboring  ones.  This 
plan  renders  rooms  liable  to  be  affected  speedily  by  changes 
of  the  outside  temperature.  When  buildings  are  together  in 
a  row,  the  loss  of  heat  from  the  walls  in  winter  is  thereby 
lessened,  and  in  summer,  heat  does  not  penetrate  readily  into 
the  centre  of  a  large  structure.  Yet  the  small,  isolated 
homes  of  our  country  regions  and  villages  are  much  more 
healthful  than  the  crowded  tenements  or  "  apartments  "  of 
cities.  The  house  standing  by  itself  receives  more  sunlight 
and  fresh  air.  It  is  for  that  reason,  and  because  of  its  free- 
dom from  contact  with  others,  less  liable  to  have  its  inmates 
receive  infection.  It  is  also  less  apt  to  have  the  germs  of 
disease  enter  it  from  infected  bed-clothing,  carpets,  and 
other  articles  heedlessly  shaken   in  the  air  by  neighbors. 


142  BUILDINGS    AND    STREETS 

Yet  all  houses  need  to  be  freely  ventilated  or  often  aired 
out  under  the  purifying  influence  of  the  sunlight.  Other- 
wise the  bacteria  of  disease  thrive  there  whenever  they  enter. 
In  great  cities,  the  crowding  of  buildings  and  especially 
the  introduction  of  tall  structures  impairs  the  healthfulness 
of  offices  and  habitations  near  by,  because  such  lofty  walls 
obstruct  the  natural  circulation  of  air  and  impede  the  pas- 
sage of  daylight.  When  a  building,  as  is  the  case  in  Chicago, 
has  twenty  stories  and  reaches  365  feet  above  the  ground,  or 
when,  as  occurs  in  other  cities,  buildings  that  are  less  than 
twenty-three  feet  broad  extend  for  more  than  ten  high  stories 
into  the  air,  these  deserve  to  challenge  attention  as  interest- 
ing architectural  experiments,  yet  are  very  far  from  being 
hygienically  proper.  Especially  is  this  so  where  the  streets 
are  very  narrow. 

By  conflagration  or  severe  storms,  these  lofty  and  frail  structures  are 
liable  to  become  wrecked  with  great  loss  of  life  to  all  who  may  be  in  or 
near  them.  Furthermore,  they  favor  overcrowding  and  are  unhealth- 
ful — as  already  mentioned — because  they  lessen  the  necessary  fresh  air 
and  light  that  people  who  are  in  adjoining  buildings  would  enjoy  but 
for  the  presence  of  the  tall  and  dangerous  buildings  on  the  crowded 
streets  of  cities.     Even  in  broad  streets,  such  structures  are  undesirable. 

Many  very  high  buildings  are  quite  deficient  in  the  features  nec- 
essary to  strength  and  permanency.  Owing  to  their  defective  con- 
struction, some  of  these  have  to  be  rebuilt  in  part  at  least  before  they 
have  been,  standing  long.  They  should  have  their  floors  and  all  their 
iron-woi'k  most  carefully  braced  transversely  or  laterally  so  as  to  make 
trusses  of  these  throughout  the  entire  building.  Careful  bracing  with 
wrought-iron  or  mild  steel  riveted  in  all  parts  does  much  to  enable  ex- 
ceedingly high  buildings  to  resist  vibration  effects  and  the  results  of 
heavy  wind-pressure.     Horizontal  ties  are  needed  for  this. 

Neither  bolting  nor  the  use  of  cast-iron  is  permissible  in  these 
structures.  Columns  made  of  cast-iron  are  very  unreliable,  being  un- 
trustworthy not  only  because  of  the  inferior  qualities  of  all  such  material 
but  also  because  competition  has  caused  much  wholly  bad  cast-iron  to  be 
put  upon  the  market.  The  defective  nature  of  this  building  material 
may  not  be  recognized  before  it  is  used. 

The  danger  from  accidents  on  passenger  elevators  used  to  convey 


RESTRICTIONS    UPON    HEIGHT    OF    BUILDINGS  143 

people  to  the  upper  stories  of  such  buildings  is  inconsiderable  when 
all  parts  are  well  constructed,  provided  with  safeguards,  carefully  and 
regularly  inspected,  and  run  very  carefully  by  responsible  persons. 

Although  houses  in  large  cities  may  be  placed  close  to- 
gether side  by  side  or  even  have  no  intervening  lateral  space 
whatsoever,  a  house  should  always  be  separated  from  the 
one  opposite  (either  in  front  or  to  the  rear)  by  at  least  the 
height  of  the  taller  of  the  two,  the  measurement  being  taken 
from  the  gutter  upon  the  edge  of  the  roof.  Some  degree  of 
uniformity  in  height  or,  better,  the  establishing,  by  rigid 
building  laws,  of  a  height  which  no  builder  is  allowed  to  ex- 
ceed, is  of  hygienic  value  as  favoring  the  unobstructed  flow 
of  air  about  all  dwellings.  Trees  in  limited  number  are  de- 
sirable in  park-like  or  wide  streets,  especially  those  fre- 
quented by  the  poor.  The  reason  is  that  the  shade  afforded 
by  suitable  foliage  allows  the  dwellers  in  close  quarters  to 
leave  their  rooms  in  summer  and  enjoy  the  healthful  influ- 
ence of  fresh  air  without  danger  from  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

In  laying  out  a  city  or  its  enlargement,  restrictions  as  to 
the  height  and  character  of  buildings  ought  carefully  to  be 
imposed.  The  city  of  Washington  serves  as  a  model  as  re- 
gards the  liberal  allotment  of  space.  It  is  very  difficult  and 
costly  to  remedy  existing  overcrowded  conditions.  Wher- 
ever possible,  numerous  small  parks  should  be  scattered 
throughout  a  city.  Usually  it  realizes  too  late  that  it  has 
not  enough  of  these  and  not  enough  long  and  broad  avenues. 

Building 

"Not  only  must  the  foundation  and  the  lower  part  of  a 
building  be  water-tight  and  thus  guarded  against  the  pos- 
sible entrance  of  moisture,  but  the  side  walls  as  well  ought 
to  be  constructed  so  as  to  keep  out  cold,  heat,  wind  and 
moisture.  All  these  results  are  secured  when  an  air-space  is 
introduced  into  the  wall,  for  air  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat 
and  cold.     It  is  also  well  to  make  the  outside  surfaces  so 


144  BUILDINGS    AND    STREETS 

close  and  dense  as  to  allow  neither  rain  nor  wind  to  drive 
into  the  substance  of  the  wall.  In  the  ordinary  wooden 
house,  these  qualities  are  found  if  there  be  tight  and  painted 
wood  upon  the  outside  and  a  tight  sheathing  or  the  usual 
papered  plastering  be  properly  fixed  upon  the  inside  of  the 
customary  air-space  in  the  walls. 

Wood  is  always  better  as  a  non-conductor  than  brick,  stone  or  iron. 
Hence  logs  of  wood,  properly  disposed,  are  preferable  to  stones  as  a 
material  for  the  walls  of  a  house,  if  no  regard  be  had  to  the  durability 
or  other  qualities  than  warmth.  The  aesthetic  worshippers,  who  erect 
chapels  of  massive  stone  with  no  wood-work  or  other  substance  on  the 
inside  of  the  stone  walls,  have  a  hygienically  undesirable  building. 
Those  of  the  congregation  who  are  near  the  wall  are  more  exposed 
to  dampness  and  cold  than  those  in  the  centre  of  the  room.  Less 
fuel  would  be  required  for  warming,  if  such  a  structure  were  of  wood. 
That  material  is  in  general  more  healthful  than  stone. 

Wooden  buildings  are  more  liable  to  burn  up  than  are  those  of  brick 
or  stone.  If  poorly  constructed,  they  may  be  very  noisy,  because 
of  transmitting  sound  very  easily.  Especially  when  old,  they  harbor 
vermin  rather  readily  and  are  not  so  easy  to  keep  clean  and  disinfect  if 
once  infected.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  log-houses,  and  nota- 
bly so  where,  for  various  reasons,  the  bark  is  not  removed  from  the 
tree-trunks. 

Architecturally  speaking,  it  may  be  said  that  the  densest 
stone  is  probably  the  most  durable  and  most  satisfactory  to 
the  builder.  Yet,  for  the  hygienist, /^;w//y  of  a  building- 
stone  is  very  desirable,  since  that  insures  the  presence  of  a 
certain  amount  of  air.  This  air  makes  the  building  material 
a  poorer  conductor  of  heat  and  cold.  Hence  brick,  being 
porous,  is  hygienically  preferable  to  stone  for  building  walls 
and  very  much  better  than  iron  or  other  metal.  Ordinary 
unglazed  brick  is  permeable  to  air  and  moisture  and  can 
take  up  one-sixth  of  its  bulk  of  water.  Accordingly  it  is 
desirable  that  brick  walls  have  oil-paint  or  some  other 
waterproof  coating  on  the  outside  surface  so  as  to  prevent 
the   entrance  of  moisture.      It  is  well  that  the  outermost 


WALLS    AND    THEIR    CONSTRUCTION  145 

layer  of  bricks  be  dense  and  smooth,  especially  if  not  glazed 
or  coated.     Yet  the  inner  layers  ought  to  be  porous. 

An  excellent  non-conducting  layer  of  air  is  created  if  we 
separate  the  walls  by  the  distance  of  at  least  two  inches  and 
thus  make  double  walls.  The  two  layers  of  such  a  wall 
are  rigidly  held  together  by  "  bonding  irons,"  glazed  earthen- 
ware or  other  strong  tie  that  shall  keep  the  two  separated 
layers  in  relative  place  and  yet  not  carry  moisture  in  to  the 
inner  wall  layer.  Such  air-layers  may  be  introduced  into  all 
of  the  four  walls  of  a  house,  or  perhaps  only  the  most  exposed 
wall  is  constructed  in  this  way.  This  method  serves  to 
make  the  inner  walls  of  a  house  dryer  and  of  more  equable 
temperature.  Hence  it  is  to  be  recommended  as  a  very 
healthful  mode  of  erecting  brick  or  stone  walls.  It  tends, 
however,  to  carry  noise  somewhat  and  adds  a  little  to  the 
cost.  An  uninterrupted  vertical  layer  of  asphalt  between 
the  outer  and  inner  layers  of  a  wall  answers  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent the  same  purpose.  All  of  these  devices  must  be  con- 
tinuous from  the  very  lowest  part  of  the  wall  upward  ;  for 
water  will  pass  through  even  a  single,  thin,  horizontal  course 
of  brick  or  stone  that  is  at  all  porous. 

In  cities  where  land  is  very  costly  and  where  a  builder 
wishes  to  slight  his  work,  or  for  other  reasons  does  not  care 
to  add  the  extra  bulk  and  expense  involved  in  making  a 
double  or  even  a  porous  wall,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find, 
even  in  very  high-priced  work,  that  plastering  has  been  laid 
directly  upon  the  stone  or  brick  of  the  wall  without  leaving 
any  space  for  lathing  or  for  its  substitute  !  The  result  is 
that  painting  and  other  ornamentation  upon  such  walls  is 
apt  to  crack  and  peel  off  and — what  is  a  very  unhealthful 
sign  that  should  always  be  looked  out  for — darker,  damp  spots 
appear  on  the  walls  owing  to  the  presence  of  moisture. 

This    dangerous    defect  can  be  prevented  (at  least  to  a 
certain  extent)  by  using  layers  of  hollow  brick  made  of  terra 
cotta,  or  porous  terra  cotta  blocks  are  used  against  the  brick. 
10 


146  BUILDINGS    AND    STREETS 

Another  way — but  which  is  not  quite  so  good — is  to  use 
hollowed,  fire-proof,  hard  (vitrified)  "furring."  If  the  hol- 
low brick  blocks  are  used  inside  because  of  their  air-spaces, 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  "bonding  bricks,"  that  are  set 
transversely  in  order  to  hold  the  others  together,  do  not  go 
clear  across  or  otherwise  form  a  means  of  carrying  moisture 
into  the  inner  parts  of  the  wall  and  thus  defeat  their  health- 
ful purpose.  The  ends  of  timbers  that  enter  the  wall  need 
especially  to  be  protected  from  moisture.  Bricks  used  for 
partitions  should  be  light  and  porous. 

Roofs  must,  like  the  best  walls,  be  water-tight  and  poor 
conductors  of  heat  and  cold.  They  ought  furthermore  to 
be  as  light  in  weight  as  is  consistent  with  these  two  essen- 
tial qualities  and  with  strength  and  permanency  as  well. 
Metal  roofs  let  in  much  heat  in  summer  and  much  cold 
in  winter.  Wood  is  decidedly  better  ;  but  for  protection 
against  fire,  it  ought  to  be  covered  with  slate  when  slanting 
and  with  sheet  metal  when  flat.  If  they  are  flat,  city  roofs 
offer  very  valuable  recreative  possibilities  when  judiciously 
utilized  for  roof-gardens.  In  Canada  it  is  found  that  double 
roofing,  an  air-space  being  between  the  upper  and  lower 
layers,  is  a  valuable  aid  to  the  maintenance  of  an  even  tem- 
perature. When  the  roof  is  double,  the  light  snow  is  not 
melted  into  ice  by  the  house  heat,  as  it  would  be  if  the  roof 
were  only  single.  Hence  the  snow  either  blows  off  or,  if 
remaining  upon  the  roof,  it  makes  an  excellent  non-con- 
ductor and  thus  protects  the  house  against  cold.  Gutters 
ought  to  be  an  inch  at  least  away  from  the  wall  or  arranged 
so  as  not  to  pour  water  upon  the  walls  in  case  of  injury  or 
stoppage  of  the  pipes  leading  water  down  to  the  ground. 

Building-stone  should  be  derived  from  clean  quarries  and  no  filth 
be  allowed  to  soil  it.  Bacteria  can  enter  the  porous  substance  and 
survive  there  much  longer  than  they  can  in  the  open  air.  Thus,  cases 
are  reported  from  several  places  (at  Pennsylvania  State  College  and 
elsewhere)  where   sewage   has   unquestionably  leaked   into   limestone 


WALLS    AND    FLOORS  I47 

with  harmful  results.  Yet  the  lime- hydrate  of  fresh  mortar  and  of 
plastering  is  destructive  of  any  bacteria  that  may  be  drawn  into  or  are 
already  in  the  walls  of  new  buildings,  unless  the  lime  has  (after  years) 
gradually  become  carbonate  of  lime.  Where  sandstone  is  used  for 
building-fronts,  it  should  be  carefully  prepared.  If  insufficient  atten- 
tion be  given  to  a  consideration  of  the  strata,  sandstone  and  limestones 
may  be  expected  to  flake  or  chip  off,  and  are  then  also  more  liable  to 
permit  the  entrance,  and  growth  into  the  stone,  of  minute  organisms. 
These  are  at  best  not  very  durable  building  materials  considered  from 
an  architectural  standpoint.  Brick  is  hygienically  preferable  to  sand- 
stone or  limestone. 

Floors  are  improved  by  having  light,  non-combustible 
material  put  into  the  space  under  the  flooring  and  over  the 
ceiling  of  the  room  beneath.  Such  filling  serves  to  lessen 
vibration  and  to  deaden  noises  to  a  great  extent.  Light 
hollow  brick  made  of  terra  cotta  are  excellent  for  the  pur- 
pose, being  fireproof  and  also  poor  conductors  of  heat  and 
cold.  They  are  used  in  the  walls  also  of  all  the  best  iron 
fireproof  buildings  and  greatly  increase  the  hygienic  value 
of  such  structures  by  making  them  cooler  in  summer  and 
warmer  in  winter  than  if  only  iron  were  used.  For  ordinary, 
inexpensive  floors,  clean  sand  is  an  excellent  filHng,  although 
heavy.  Ashes  are  often  used,  but  are  not  good,  since  some 
ashes  take  up  moisture.  Light  earths  of  various  kinds  are 
good.  Turf  is  especially  desirable  when  it  has  been  treated 
with  quicklime  so  as  to  have  become  incombustible  and  to 
have  acquired  at  the  same  time  a  disinfectant  quality. 

It  is  very  important  to  recognize  that  danger  to  the  health  is  involved 
when  common  earth  from  an  infected  soil  is  used  for  such  filling  under 
a  floor.  Frequent  attacks  of  typhoid  fever,  pneumonia  and  other  dis- 
eases have  been  attributed  by  scientific  physicians  to  such  unclean  soil 
put  under  floors.  Germs  of  infection  may  enter  such  material  through 
defective  floors,  and  much  filth  may  be  left  there  because  of  the  filthy 
habits  of  the  ordinary  workman  engaged  upon  the  construction  of  a 
house.  Very  careful  and  reliable  investigators  have  shown  that  when 
bad  filling  material  is  carelessly  taken  to  put  between  floors,  examina- 


X48  BUILDINGS    AND    STREETS 

tion  may  reveal  more  bacteria  present  in  such  dirt  than  are  ordinarily 
found  in  highly  contaminated  soils  outside  ! 

The  uncleanliness  between  floors  may  tend  to  increase  with  time 
rather  than  to  diminish  ;  for  in  these  dark  and  close  spaces  the  natural 
processes  of  purification  are  not  operative  as  they  are  in  soils  under  the 
usual  favorable  out-of-door  conditions.  Therefore,  floor-fillings  of 
doubtful  cleanliness  should  either  be  rejected  or  treated  with  fresh 
milk-of-lime,  which  furthermore  may  in  certain  cases  be  very  valuable 
as  a  disinfectant  for  cleaning  filthy  floor  spaces. 

The  boards  used  for  floors  should  be  tongued  and 
grooved  and  also  very  carefully  matched  and  joined.  They 
ought  to  have  been  dried  for  months  beforehand.  Oak  or 
other  hard  wood  carefully  selected  is  best.  When  yellow 
pine  is  used,  the  kind  of  boards  called  ''  comb-cut "  are  to 
be  employed,  the  side  of  the  grain  being  upward.  The 
boards  are  then  less  liable  to  splinter  and  warp.  Flooring 
boards,  when  laid  double  with  tarred  felt  between  the  two 
layers,  are  much  less  resonant  than  when  this  protection 
against  noise  is  omitted.  Layers  of  tarred  paper  under 
flooring  keep  bacteria  and  moisture  from  going  freely 
through  defective  boards.  Above  pipes,  the  boards  should 
be  especially  arranged  so  as  to  permit  ready  removal  when- 
ever that  becomes  necessary.  Between  the  boards  no  fis- 
sures or  crevices  should  exist.  Wood-cement  should  be 
used  to  fill  up  such  unhealthful  receptacles  for  dirt. 

Floors  may  be  treated  with  three  coats  of  boiled  lin- 
seed oil,  and  then  waxed,  or  thin  shellac  varnish  applied 
several  times.  This  serves  to  make  a  good  floor,  imperme- 
able to  liquid  and  dry  dirt.  This  is  somewhat  costly  ;  the 
heated  drying  oil  used  may  smell  bad  and  is  not  of  itself 
antiseptic.  Dr.  Scheffer's  method  is  better  and  is  so  inex- 
pensive that  it  can  be  used  for  almost  any  floor.  The  floor 
is  of  course  to  be  as  well  laid  as  possible,  the  nails  sunk  and 
the  boards  planed  and  sand-papered  smooth,  if  the  cost  of 
that  be  permissible.     Any  floor  to  be  treated  successfully 


FLOORS  149 

in  this  way  should  first  be  scrubbed  clean  with  soda,  and 
after  this  it  is  to  be  made  perfectly  dry.  Then,  coal-tar  is 
used  to  impregnate  the  fibres  of  the  wood  and  to  enter  all 
fissures.  If  heated  till  of  the  consistency  of  oil,  the  coating 
will  run  in.  Yet  care  is  then  needed  that  the  heating  be 
not  done  too  near  to  the  floor  because  of  danger  of  fire. 
For  this  reason,  it  is  generally  preferable  that  the  coal-tar 
be  introduced  in  a  cool  state.  This  can  be  effected  by 
incorporating  into  it  one-fourth  of  its  weight  of  heavy  coal- 
oil.  A  thin  layer  of  this  mixture  is  applied  in  a  cold  slate 
by  means  of  a  brush. 

The  floor  should  have  been  well  cleaned,  and  a  solution 
of  corrosive  sublimate  in  the  strength  of  one  part  to  one 
thousand  of  water  (or  a  little  more  than  one  drachm  to  a 
gallon)  may  have  been  applied  to  the  cleansed  floor  if  neces- 
sary for  antiseptic  purposes.  In  any  case,  the  floor  must  be 
dry  before  the  tar  mixture  is  applied.  After  the  first  coat 
has  dried  in  for  two  full  days,  a  second  coat  of  the  tar  and 
oil  is  brushed  well  into  all  parts.  A  third  and  final  coat  is 
added  two  days  after  the  application  of  the  second  coat. 
The  odor  disappears  in  a  few  days,  and  a  smooth  polished 
surface  remains  which  is  antiseptic,  preventive  of  all  para- 
sites,^ and  easily  kept  clean,  needing  only  a  slightly  dampened 
mop  or  cloth  to  remove  dust.  A  bunch  of  wool  or  a  hair 
brush  upon  which  a  few  drops  of  petroleum  or  linseed  oil 
have  been  put  may  be  rubbed  over  this  floor  surface  to 
maintain  or  restore  its  polish.  The  same  inexpensive  coat- 
ing can  be  used  upon  wall  boards. 

Cleanliness  of  the  floor  where  it  joins  the  wall  is  greatly 
aided  by  the  use  of  a  rounded,  concave  moulding  for  the 
junction  of  wall  and  floor.  Crevices  and  irregular  surfaces 
on  walls  and  floors  harbor  dirt  even  in  spite  of  the  ordinary 
cleaning,  and  at  times  disease  germs  are  in  this  dirt.  There- 
fore water  should  not  be  used  in  excess  for  cleaning  an 
ordinary  floor,  as  it  tends  to  go  into  and  through  the  floor, 


150  BUILDINGS    AND    STREETS 

and  then  dirt  and  bacteria  are  carried  into  the  spaces  un- 
derneath. Where  a  floor  is  water-tight,  this  objection  does 
not  exist.  Hence  linoleum  or  a  similar  covering  is  excel- 
lent for  rooms  into  which  much  dirt,  mud  and  water  are 
brought.  It  can  be  cleaned  off  with  a  mop,  and  so  no  dust 
rises.  Carpet-sweepers  are  hygienically  better  than  brooms 
for  carpeted  floors,  since  brooms  stir  up  much  dust.  Clean 
sawdust,  tea-leaves  or  small  bits  of  paper,  that  have  been 
well  soaked  with  clean  water,  and  scattered  over  the  dusty 
carpet  or  other  floor,  take  up  much  dust  at  time  of  sweep- 
ing with  brooms. 

Carpets  that  are  nailed  down  are  not  desirable  in  any 
room.  Dirt  gradually  sifts  through  the  fabric,  and  part 
remains  on  the  floor  or  on  the  paper  which  may  be  between 
the  carpet  and  the  floor,  while  part  of  this  dry  dirt  (which 
may  contain  germs  of  disease)  makes  its  way  down  into  and 
through  the  faulty  flooring  so  common  in  our  buildings.  If 
used  at  all,  carpets  ought  to  be  frequently  cleaned.  Carpet 
beaters  ought  to  be  very  careful  not  to  allow  their  dust  to 
fly  into  the  air  so  as  to  be  carried  toward  any  person  or 
house.  Machines  for  the  purpose  of  beating  carpets  in  cities 
ought  always  to  have  exhaust-fans  to  draw  the  dust  into 
chambers  where  it  is  laid  by  means  of  sprays  or  othec  wet 
method.     Carpets  from  sick-rooms  require  disinfection. 

Concrete  when  of  the  best  quality  makes  excellent  non_ 
combustible  and  water-tight  floors.  Asphalt  has  both  of 
these  qualities.  It  may  be  considered  as  having  especial 
merit  for  the  flooring  on  staircases  and  for  public  halls 
where  many  people  enter  who  are  not  very  clean  and  who 
bring  much  street  dirt  in  with  them.  These  floor  materials, 
being  water-tight,  can  readily  be  cleaned  by  water,  and  are 
better  than  marble  in  everything  but  appearance.  The 
objection  to  them  is  that  they  are  colder  than  wood.  Cork- 
asphalt  is  a  new  material  said  to  possess  the  advantages  of 
both  asphalt  and  vegetable  substances.     It  is  to  be  hoped 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    HOUSES  I5I 

that  it  prove  upon  long  trial  to  have  the  merits  claimed  for 
it. 

Old  wood  of  houses  may  be  in  a  decomposed  state  owing  to  various 
microorganic  growths  (moulds)  in  the  substance  of  the  wood.  New 
wood,  therefore,  ought  not  to  be  brought,  to  any  great  extent,  into 
contact  with  that  which  has  long  been  used.  The  destructive  parasitic 
process  is  also  less  liable  to  attack  timber  when  it  is  very  dry  before  oil 
or  paint  has  been  applied.  Creosote,  tar  or  similarly  antiseptic  prep- 
arations should  be  used  freely  upon  wood  wherever  the  ends  of  floor- 
beams  come  into  contact  with  the  wall  or  are  elsewhere  exposed  to 
moisture.  Architects  say  that  our  Oregon  pine  is  never  attacked  by 
the  destructive  white  ant  of  Australia. 

Staircases  ought  to  be  plain  and  fireproof,  well  aired 
and  open  to  daylight.  They  must  be  readily  accessible 
from  all  the  rooms  that  they  are  arranged  to  supply.  In 
hotels  and  institutions,  the  stairs  should  be  abundant  and 
away  from  elevators  or  shafts  which  are  liable  to  prove 
dangerous  flues  in  case  of  fire.  In  such  places,  as  also  in 
theatres,  the  staircases  ought  invariably  to  be  indicated  by 
oil-lamps  having  uniform  and  distinctive  colored  chimneys 
and  globes.  It  is  also  well  that  such  special  safety  lights 
be  always  kept  burning  when  the  place  is  being  used  ;  for 
sad  experiences  have  shown  that  gas  or  the  electric  current 
may,  when  fire  has  broken  out,  be  completely  shut  off  by 
accident  or  by  misunderstanding  due  to  the  excitement  of 
the   occasion,  and   therefrom   many  lives    have   been    lost. 

Steps  are  not  to  be  much  more  than  a  foot  deep  in  any 
case  and  not  above  seven  inches  high.  The  presence  of 
landings  or  short  levels,  at  least  as  often  as  once  in  every 
eighteen  steps,  renders  the  stairs  easier  to  climb,  and  ought 
to  be  introduced  wherever  women  are  to  use  the  stairs. 
Spiral  staircases  are  somewhat  liable  to  induce  accidents 
because  of  the  narrowness  of  the  inner  edge  of  the  wedge- 
shaped  stair.     Slippery  surfaces  are  objectionable. 

For  fire-escapes,  outside  of  buildings,  upright  ladders 


152  BUILDINGS    AND    STREETS 

are  not  safe  for  the  average  person  to  use.  Ladders  must 
slant  somewhat  and  have  flat  treads.  The  best  kinds  are 
somewhat  like  ordinary  stairs  going  down  outside  in  a  zig- 
zag manner  from  one  balcony  to  another,  these  balconies 
being  at  each  floor-level  all  the  way  from  the  roof  down- 
ward. The  various  automatic  fire-escapes  offer  an  ingenious 
and  apparently  effective  means  of  lowering  a  timid  person 
by  means  of  a  rope.  An  endless  chain  is  better  as  a  per- 
manent fixture.  The  most  satisfactory  reliance  in  time  of 
fire  is  in  good  construction,  laterally  extending  balconies 
and  double  exits  front  and  back  from  every  floor. 

Windows  ought  to  be  high,  for  the  light  in  the  room  is 
then  better,  as  indicated  in  the  pages  on  Lighting  and  on 
Schools.  They  ought  to  have  a  total  surface  equal  to  more 
than  one-tenth  of  the  floor  area  of  the  room  that  they  light. 
Twice  that  amount  of  window-space  is  desirable.  Some  fire- 
commissions  consider  it  dangerous  to  have  the  windows 
exceed  thirty  per  cent,  of  the  wall  area,  if  another  building 
be  within  forty  feet  of  the  wall  and  fronting  it.  In  brick 
or  stone  houses,  the  window-sills  ought  not  to  be  of  wood. 

Dining-rooms  and  kitchens  are  best  situated  w^hen 
upon  the  north  side  of  the  house,  if  the  location  favor  this. 
While  it  is  often  desirable  that  hotels  have  kitchens  at  the 
top  of  the  building,  nearly  every  practical  reason  is  against 
that  plan  for  private  houses.  A  way  of  preventing  all 
kitchen  odors  from  invading  a  house  is  to  have  an  exhaust- 
fan  (see  Fig.  29)  to  draw  the  air  up  the  chimney  and  out  of 
the  kitchen,  and  it  may  be  used  also  for  drawing  out  vapor 
from  a  laundry.  The  cooking-room  may  be  out  in  an  ex- 
tension ;  but  no  living-  or  working-rooms  should  be  on  the 
level  of  the  cellar.  Servants  should  not  occupy  basement 
rooms,  although  the  inner  and  lower  part  of  a  house  is  much 
cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter.  Such  places  have 
not  enough  light  and  fresh  air  as  a  rule,  and  servants  are 
generally  not  very  cleanly  in  their  ways.     The  cellar  should 


INTERIORS    OF    ROOMS  153 

be  especially  clean  and  dry  ;  for  dirt  from  there  goes  up 
very  often  into  the  house.  If  the  cellar  and  basement  be 
dirty  and  moist,  the  house  cannot  be  healthy.  No  cess- 
pools should  be  tolerated  there.  Water-closets  and  other 
fixtures  connecting  with  the  house-drainage  ought  not  to  be 
very  low  down.  In  no  case  should  they  be  below  the  level 
of  the  house-drainage  soil-pipe  that  goes  to  the  sewer. 

Sleeping-rooms  ought  not  to  contain  less  than  one 
thousand  cubic  feet  of  space  for  every  occupant.  It  is 
desirable  that  such  rooms  be  much  larger  than  that.  Alcoves 
and  dark  recesses  are  not  healthful  ;  for  abundant  fresh  air 
and  sunlight  are  needed  in  every  bedroom.  The  rooms 
on  the  east,  southeast  or  south  sides  are  preferable  for 
sleeping-rooms  and  nurseries.  They  get  the  winter  sun- 
shine, and  do  not  suffer  from  the  summer  sun  as  much  as 
those  rooms  that  face  the  southwest  and  west. 

Sleeping-room  furniture  and  decorations  ought  to 
be  of  the  simplest  patterns.  The  harder  the  plaster  of 
the  walls  and  the  smoother  it  is  in  finish,  the  better. 
Smooth,  oil-painted  surfaces  are  easiest  to  keep  clean.  All 
roughnesses  and  fissures  upon  the  walls,  or  in  the  wainscot- 
ing or  in  whatever  woodwork  is  present,  are  objectionable 
as  being  liable  to  hold  harmful  dirt. 

Wall-papers  often  contain  arsenic.  Dr.  Wm.  B.  Hills 
of  Harvard  found  this  poison  in  nearly  a  third  of  the  2,142 
samples  that  he  examined  in  1889,  1890,  and  1891,  and  it 
was  present  to  the  extent  of  more  than  one-tenth  of  a  grain 
per  square  yard  in  nearly  three  per  cent,  of  these  samples. 
The  following  colors  used  on  walls  and  ceilings  appear  to 
contain  much  arsenic  :  orange,  chrome  yellow,  dark  ochre, 
Venetian  red,  raw  umber,  sienna,  brown  umber.  They  are 
probably  not  harmful  if  used  with  oil  ;  but  may  be  injurious 
if  used  without  oil,  as  in  "  distemper  "  or  water-color  paint- 
ing upon  ceilings.  The  improved  Marsh  test  enables  any 
competent    chemist   to  determine  from    examination    of   a 


T54  BUILDINGS    AND    STREETS 

piece  of  paper,  ten  inches  square,  whether  arsenic  be  present 
or  not.  The  purity  of  the  zinc  and  acid  used  for  the  test 
must  be  determined  by  a  parallel  test  made  without  any 
paper  or  other  suspicious  substance  being  introduced. 

Arsenic  furthermore  occurs  in  dangerous  quantities  in 
a  considerable  proportion  of  the  colored  and  figured  stuffs 
used  for  curtains  and  other  house-furnishing  goods.  For 
this  reason,  draperies  and  hangings  may  be  at  times  very 
unhealthful  in  sleeping-rooms.  A  much  more  constantly 
potent  reason  for  limiting  as  much  as  possible  the  use  of 
such  things  is  that  they  hold  dirt  and  shut  out  light. 
Cornices  and  raised  plaster  ornaments  are  open  to  the 
objection  of  catching  dirt  and  making  the  wall  less  easy  to 
clean  than  when  they  are  absent.  After  it  has  been  used 
for  lodging  a  person  with  an  infectious  disease,  a  room 
should  be  disinfected  as  is  explained  in  the  chapter  on 
Disinfection.  The  failure  to  follow  out  proper  disinfection 
in  hotel  rooms  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  to  be  the 
cause  of  many  cases  of  infectious  disease. 

Dark  rooms  and  halls  where  light  and  air  do  not  freely 
enter  are  not  healthful.  The  germs  of  disease  find  very 
favorable  living  places  there.  Hangings,  draperies,  soft 
carpets,  fretted  wood-work,  if  used  at  all  in  cloudy  Northern 
lands,  ought  to  be  aired  frequently  and  bright  daylight  should 
be  allowed  to  come  to  them.  The  fashion  of  the  day  ap- 
pears still  to  permit  much  more  raised  plaster  ornamentation 
than  is  desirable.  Lincrusta  Walton  seems  the  least  objec- 
tionable of  the  uneven  wall  coverings.  Smooth  surfaces  are 
most  easily  kept  clean,  and  are  therefore  hygienically  prefer- 
able to  those  which  are  rough  or  fissured. 

Moisture  is  present  in  the  walls  of  stone  or  brick 
houses  for  a  long  time  after  they  are  built,  because  several  tons 
of  water  are  used  in  the  building  of  an  ordinary  city  house. 
The  main  part  of  this  is  mechanically  present  and  ought  to 
be  dried  off  before  the  house  is  used.     Laying  bricks  or 


DAMP    WALLS — PAVEMENTS  I55 

Stone  in  an  unprotected  wall,  even  in  frosty  weather,  causes 
the  drying  out  of  the  wall  to  be  slow.  When  bricks  are  laid 
in  very  cold  weather,  as  is  done  in  some  of  our  most  "  rapid  " 
cities,  the  moisture  lingers  long,  and  the  masonry  is  not  so 
durable  as  when  the  work  is  done  in  milder  weather. 

If  it  be  necessary  to  occupy  such  buildings  very  soon  after 
they  are  erected,  they  need  to  be  well  heated  by  burning 
gas,  using  furnaces  and  so  on.  Draughts  of  very  warm  air 
should  be  made  to  circulate  and  flow  through  the  rooms.  If  in 
the  warm  season  and  if  the  weather  be  dry,  sunlight  and  open 
air  will  do  much  to  dry  off  the  walls.  With  properly  con- 
structed double  walls,  the  inner  walls  dry  readily  and  remain 
dry.  If  in  closed  or  other  rooms  the  walls  show  wet  spots, 
the  rooms  are  not  fit  to  be  occupied  and  not  yet  ready  for 
papering  or  painting.  For  demonstration,  samples  of  mor- 
tar may  be  taken  from  various  places  in  the  wall,  and  then 
tested  for  moisture.  If  more  than  two  per  cent,  of  water 
be  present,  the  wall  is  not  to  be  considered  dry  enough  for 
health. 

Streets   and  Pavements 

Streets  ought  to  be  well  paved.  Mud  streets,  so  very  com- 
mon in  prairie  towns  and  in  alluvial  regions  in  general,  are 
very  destructive  of  wagons  and  wasteful  of  force.  More- 
over, they  may  harbor  much  filth.  In  cities,  the  (Telford-) 
Macadam  pavement  does  not  keep  clean  nor  wear  well. 

Stone  pavement,  composed  of  granite  blocks,  wears  best 
of  all.  It  is  excellent  for  heavy  traffic  and  is  adapted  for 
slopes,  because  it  offers  a  tolerable  foothold  for  horses ;  yet  it 
is  objectionably  noisy.  Like  all  other  pavements,  it  should 
have  a  good  foundation,  such  as  concrete.  It  is  most  hy- 
gienically  laid  when  warm  coal-tar  mixtures  are  poured  be- 
tween the  blocks.  Wlien  the  tar-cement  sets,  it  is  elastic 
and  yet  serves  to  keep  filth  from  entering  into  and  remain- 
ing in  the  spaces  between  blocks.     The  cost  of  the  granite 


156  BUILDINGS    AND    STREETS 

pavement  in  the  form  of  "  Belgian  blocks  "  laid  on  the  surface 
of  Sixth  Avenue  in  New  York  City  is  a  little  over  $3.75  per 
square  yard  ;  for  repairs,  the  cost  is  sixteen  cents  per  year. 
Wood  pavement  is  often  used  where  wood  is  cheap 
and  where  any  relief  from  the  prevalent  mud  is  a  great  ad- 
vantage. In  none  of  our  American  cities  is  wood  a  durable 
pavement.  Yet  in  Sydney,  Australia,  it  is  considered  the 
ideal,  because  of  their  very  durable  wood.  In  Paris,  creo- 
soted  wood  blocks  are  much  liked  for  paving.  The  usual 
cedar  block  does  not  last  for  more  than  from  six  to  nine  years. 
By  that  time  it  is  rotted  or  worn  too  much  to  be  good.  In 
Chicago,  it  has  been  found  that  when  much  used  by  heavy 
trucks  and  wagons,  cedar  block  pavements  remained  good 
for  only  three  years. 

The  favorite  form  of  these  blocks  is  cylindrical.  They  vary  from  four 
to  seven  or  eight  inches  in  depth  and  have  the  grain  running  vertical  to 
the  surface  of  the  street.  They  should  not  be  of  "sap-wood."  The 
ground  between  the  two  lines  of  curbing  ought  to  be  carefully  graded. 
The  result  is  always  much  more  satisfactory  if  a  heavy  steam  roller 
be  used  to  smooth  the  surface  completely.  Then  this  even  surface  is 
sanded  over  to  a  depth  of  three  inches.  Dry  and  well-seasoned  planks, 
one  inch  or  more  in  thickness,  are  used  over  this  as  a  foundation  for  the 
blocks.  Coal-tar  and  asphalt  combined  to  make  a  cement  are  usually 
poured  over  the  surface  of  the  blocks  to  serve  the  preservative  and 
hygienic  purpose  of  filling  up  all  fissures  and  spaces. 

Fine  gravel  is  then  thrown  over  all,  it  being  previously  heated  if  tar- 
cement  has  been  used  as  a  coating.  Carefully  laid,  this  pavement  is 
not  inexpensive.  It  has  the  merit  of  being  elastic  enough  to  allow 
wheels  to  pass  over  it  with  very  little  noise.  The  hoofs  of  rapidly 
moving  horses,  however,  make  considerable  noise  on  wood  pavement. 
Hygienically,  it  is  inferior  to  asphalt  of  good  quality,  since  it  offers  in  its 
substance  more  chance  for  the  retention  of  disease  germs  and  filth 
of  various  sorts. 

There  are  other  mineral  and  vegetable  pavements  which  deserve  con- 
sideration only  in  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  the  special  subject  of  paving. 
Iron,  as  used  in  Russia,  is  one  of  these.  It  is  dirty  and  otherwise  objec- 
tionable. Brick  pavement  ought  to  be  mentioned,  for  it  is  used  quite 
largely  in   certain  regions  where  the  geological   formation   makes   this 


PAVEMENTS  I57 

cheap,  while  other  suitable  material  is  expensive.  Ohio  cities  offer 
the  best  chance  to  study  this.  It  is  claimed  that  satisfactory  results  are 
had  there.  Great  lack  of  uniformity  in  quality  is  noticed  in  the  usual 
brick  pavement.  Cork-pavement,  or  cork-asphalt,  made  by  incorporat- 
ing cork  into  asphalt  blocks,  is  a  novelty  which  is  said  to  be  adapted  for 
the  hardest  wear  and  yet  is  not  slippery.  If  wholly  non-inflammable, 
as  is  claimed,  it  ought  to  make  a  good  flooring  for  stairs  and  halls  of 
fireproof  buildings  that  are  much  used.  "India-rubber"  pavement 
(made  of  lime  mixed  with  the  waste  from  petroleum  refineries)  is  used 
in  London,  but  seems  still  in  the  experimental  stage  of  its  use. 

Asphalt  pavement,  when  it  has  a  perfectly  continuous, 
smooth  surface,  and  when  of  the  best  quality,  is  the  most 
healthful  that  we  have.  This  needs  to  be  kept  very  clean. 
To  that  end,  it  ought  to  be  cleaned  with  rubber-edged 
scrapers  whenever  muddy.  Frequent  flushing  with  abun- 
dant water,  as  practised  in  Paris,  is  very  important  for  secur- 
ing real  cleanliness.  Some  of  our  cities,  like  Washington, 
have  large  surfaces  covered  with  this  pavement.  In  Buffalo 
alone  there  is  more  asphalt  pavement  than  in  all  the  cities 
of  Europe  together. 

The  standard  of  the  European  pavement  seems  higher 
than  ours.  It  may  be  very  defective  in  some  of  our  streets. 
Streets  reveal  unevennesses  best  when  the  asphalt  surface 
is  wet.  The  finest  work  is  very  good,  even  and  durable, 
notably  when  of  the  Neufchatel  or  Sicilian  asphalt.  Yet 
that  is  very  slippery  at  the  beginning  of  rain,  because  of 
the  manure  and  other  organic  matter  present.  The  surface 
being  so  smooth  and  impervious  to  moisture,  the  manure 
and  other  dirt  upon  it  dries  rapidly,  and  from  this  comes 
much  unpleasant  dust  wherever  horses  are  used. 

By  reason,  however,  of  the  dryness  as  well  as  of  the  free 
exposure  to  fresh  air  and  sunlight,  and  because  of  the  ease 
with  which  it  can  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  this  is  less  liable 
than  other  pavements  to  have  the  dust  upon  it  of  a  very 
harmful  nature.  Yet  the  necessity  of  cleaning  is  particularly 
evident  with   asphalt ;  and   rainy  weather  affords  the  best 


158  BUILDINGS    AND    STREETS 

time,  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  for  getting  rid  of  the 
dirt.  Asphalt  surfaces  take  up  much  of  the  sun's  heat  and 
give  it  out  only  slowly.  Heat  softens  asphalt.  Hence  such 
pavement  is  not  fit  for  hot  climates.  It  also  does  not  keep 
well  where  steam-pipes  are  under  or  near  it. 

A  solid  foundation  is  indispensable.  Otherwise  the  surface  cracks 
and  settles,  thus  losing  its  economic  and  hygienic  quality  of  great 
smoothness.  Over  the  very  firm  foundation,  come  six  inches  of 
hydraulic  cement  concrete.  Then  are  added  two  or  three  inches  of  the 
compound  of  one  part  of  bitumen  with  thirteen  parts  of  asphalt  and 
other  ingredients,  including  sand  and  limestone,  in  varying  proportions. 
Then  heating,  smoothing  and  rolling  follow.  The  cost  is  about  four 
dollars  per  square  yard  ;  a  guaranty  for  fifteen  years  of  careful  main- 
tenance being  given.  If  car-rails  run  along  streets  having  such  pave- 
ment, it  is  well  to  have  a  row  of  granite  blocks  along  the  edge  of  the 
track.  The  flat-topped,  grooved  rail,  laid  flush  with  the  pavement, 
imperils  fewer  lives  of  people  driving  on  or  over  such  tracks  and  dis- 
turbs their  comfort  less  than  ordinary  rails. 

Sidewalks  should  be  smooth.  The  best  artificial  stone, 
made  of  powdered  granite  or  other  rock  and  Portland 
cement,  seems  preferable  to  natural  stone.  It  is  more 
durable  than  brick  and  also  cleaner.  Yet  it  should  have  a 
good  foundation.  Neither  trolley-posts  and  wires  nor  ele- 
vated railways  ought  to  be  tolerated  in  thickly  settled 
streets.  Telegraph  and  telephone  wires  (always  well  insu- 
lated) ought  to  be  in  subways  beneath  the  level  of  the 
street  and  not  far  from  the  junction  of  the  street  and  the 
sidewalk.  These  subways  should  have  sufficient  space  for 
the  sewer  at  the  bottom  and  the  water-mains  and  gas-pipes 
on  the  sides.  With  man-holes  for  entering  and  ventilating 
these,  trouble  can  readily  be  discovered  and  remedied  ; 
while  all  unhealthful,  costly  and  obstructive  tearing  up  of 
the  streets  is  thereby  obviated. 

In  dry  Tveather,  the  streets  ought  to  be  sprinkled  at 
least  twice  daily  to  lay  troublesome  dust  and  to  cool  the  air 


STREETS  AND  STREET  CLEANING  1 59 

in  summer.  Such  wetting,  to  keep  harmful  bacteria  from 
flying  about,  needs  to  be  frequent  ;  but  wetting  the  dust  of 
the  streets  can  interfere  with  the  natural  process  of  destruc- 
tion of  the  bacteria  that  may  be  there.  In  that  natural 
process  the  dry,  pure  air  and  abundant  sunlight  are  very 
potent  and  healthful  factors.  Sea-water  can  be  employed 
for  sprinkling  streets,  although  purer  water  is  much  better. 
In  no  case  is  it  healthful  to  put  water  on  the  streets  if  it  be 
contaminated  with  sewage  or  otherwise  obviously  impure. 

Street-sweeping  machines  are  from  three  to  nine 
times  as  economical  as  hand  labor  for  removing  loose 
dirt  from  a  given  area.  They  cause  much  dust  to  rise  into 
the  air.  Hand  work  is  more  satisfactory.  The  ground 
ought  always  to  be  sprinkled  before  sweeping  is  begun 
upon  it.  Despite  occasional  statements  to  the  contrary, 
it  may  be  considered  that  manure  forms  a  large  portion 
of  our  city  street  dust.  This  dust  is  considerably  like 
dried  sewage.  In  this  there  are  at  times  numerous  harmful 
bacteria  which  produce  disease  if  inhaled.  If  they  enter 
wounds,  they  can  cause  inflammation.  The  dangerous 
bacillus  that  causes  tetanus  (lockjaw)  is  found  in  manure. 

Street-sweepings  ought  not  to  be  used  for  filling  vacant 
lots.  •  It  is  best  that  such  dirt  be  burned,  as  is  done  quite 
extensively  in  England.  The  question  of  the  cremation  of 
garbage  will  be  found  spoken  of  in  a  later  chapter.  There 
should  be  covers  for  the  carts  that  remove  street  sweepings, 
ashes  and  garbage. 

Removal  of  snow  by  melting  it  with  hot  water  is  too 
expensive.  Carting  off  an  excess  proves  the  best  way. 
If  the  Paris  method  (of  melting  the  snow  in  part  by  the  use 
of  salt)  be  tried,  the  chilly  slush  that  results  ought  to  be 
carted  away  very  promptly.  For  icy  sidewalks,  salt  ought 
to  be  prohibited.  To  prevent  slipping,  sand  should  be 
sprinkled  over  the  ice. 


HEATING 

In  the  colder  months  of  the  year,  natural  ventilation,  by 
the  entrance  of  cold  air  through  ordinary  walls  and  through 
the  imperfect  closures  of  windows  and  doors,  acting  with 
cold  from  other  sources,  produces  in  our  living-rooms  a 
temperature  so  low  that  it  is  neither  healthful  nor  agreeable. 
Hence  we  not  only  construct  our  buildings  carefully  in 
order  that  the  walls  and  other  parts  shall  be  as  poor  con- 
ductors of  cold  and  currents  of  air  as  is  economically 
possible,  but  at  the  same  time  we  make  careful  provision  so 
that  artificial  heat  can  be  produced  when  needed. 

The  most  approved  temperature  of  the  interiors  of 
our  buildings  in  winter  varies  according  to  the  use  for  which 
the  rooms  are  intended  and  somewhat  also  according  to  the 
individual  preference.  It  is  observed  that  persons  of  cer- 
tain races,  among  the  many  foreigners  peopling  our  great 
cities,  are  very  uncomfortable  unless  the  temperature  of  the 
rooms  in  which  they  live  or  work  is  kept  much  higher  than 
that  which  others  prefer.  Owing  somewhat  to  a  difference 
in  climate,  Americans  in  general  tend  to  heat  their  apart- 
ments more  than  the  English  consider  proper. 

In  a  workroom,  where  people  are  constantly  in  active 
motion,  the  thermometer  should  register  less  than  62°  F. 
If  used  for  sedentary  work,  the  room  should  be  several 
degrees  warmer.  With  us,  70°  F.  is  regarded  by  many  as 
the  proper  temperature  for  a  warm  living-room  or  a  school- 
room. This  standard  temperature  is  considered  a  little 
too  high  by  some.  Others  wish  to  have  rooms  still  hotter. 
A  bath-room  may  properly  be  as  warm  even  as  75°  F. 
A  sleeping-room  during  the  night  should  not  be  warmed 


WARMING    OUR    ROOMS  l6l 

above  60°  F.  unless  because  of  delicate  and  sensitive  in- 
valids. In  theatres  or  places  where  people  are  sitting 
lightly  clad,  the  temperature  should  be  above  67°  F.  In 
well-constructed  churches  ten  or  fifteen  degrees  less  heat 
is  needed,  since  warmer  clothing  is  worn  there. 

If  thermometers  be  employed  as  indicators  to  aid  in  regulating  the 
heat  there  should  be  more  than  one  in  a  room,  and  these  should  be  care- 
fully placed  at  about  the  level  of  the  head.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  outer  wall  of  the  room  (especially  if  it  receives  no  sunshine)  is 
much  colder  in  winter  than  the  inner  (partition)  wall  or  the  body  of 
the  air  in  the  room.  The  walls,  window-spaces  (particularly  when  the 
windows  are  not  double)  and  the  floors  (if  a  warm  room  be  not 
beneath)  are  constantly  losing  heat  that  they  receive  from  the  warmer 
air  of  the  room  in  cold  weather. 

In  the  best  systems,  where  heating  and  ventilation  are  combined, 
this  constant  loss  of  heat  by  the  cooling  of  the  walls  from  outside  is 
properly  compensated  for  by  having  the  fresh  air  that  enters  heated  to 
a  suitably  higher  temperature  than  that  of  the  air  in  the  room. 

The  bright  rays  of  the  sun,  entering  freely  through  the  glass  of  the 
windows,  contribute  a  little  to  the  maintenance  of  a  comfortable  tem- 
perature in  cold  weather.  Being  absorbed  by  the  floor,  walls  and 
various  objects  and  furnishings  in  the  room,  these  bright  rays  become 
converted  into  heat  which  cannot  pass  back  through  the  glass,  but  re- 
main within  to  warm  the  room  somewhat.  This,  and  the  heat  retained 
(by  the  walls  and  objects  in  the  room)  from  previous  heating,  con- 
tribute a  varying  amount  of  warmth.  Our  main  reliance  in  winter  is 
upon  more  or  less  constant  employment  of  artificial  heat  produced  by 
the  use  of  stoves,  furnaces,  coils  of  hot-water  pipes,  etc.,  which  all 
derive  their  warmth  from  the  combustion  of  some  fuel. 

Fuels  (coal,  wood,  gas,  etc.)  contain  carbon,  hydrogen 
and  other  elements.  In  order  that  these  shall  burn,  oxygen 
(as  furnished  by  the  air)  is  required  ;  and  this,  uniting  with 
the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  the  fuel,  gives  off  heat.  One 
pound  of  average  coal  is  considered  to  require  about  160 
cubic  feet  of  air  for  its  perfect  combustion.  Coke  requires 
somewhat  less,  and  charcoal  a  little  less  than  coke.  A 
pound  of  wood  theoretically  requires  nearly  60  cubic  feet 


l62  HEATING 

of  air  in  order  to  effect  its  perfect  combustion.  Peat  re- 
quires nearly  as  much  as  wood.  Practically,  more  than 
twice  as  much  oxygen  as  these  figures  indicate  should  be 
allowed  in  order  to  insure  perfect  combustion.  Yet  it  is 
wasteful  to  supply  too  much  air ;  for  this  excess  of  air  is 
heated  before  it  goes  up  the  chimney,  and  that  requires  the 
unprofitable  use  of  some  fuel. 

We  cannot,  with  hygienic  propriety,  allow  the  coal,  wood 
or  other  fuel  to  burn  openly  in  the  middle  of  one  of  our 
rooms,  as  was  the  custom  of  our  British  ancestors  of  thir- 
teen hundred  years  ago,  and  which  crude  method  is  used 
to-day  somewhat,  especially  by  savage  races.  With  such 
fires,  reliance  is  had  upon  a  hole  in  the  roof  for  the  escape 
of  the  more  or  less  harmful  combustion  gases  and  of  the  un- 
used carbon  (as  soot  and  smoke).  The  results  are  very  de- 
fective. Irritated  eyes  and  lungs  are  not  rare  under  such 
conditions  ;  and,  besides  the  unhealthful  gases  of  combus- 
tion not  being  carried  off  properly,  much  unburnt  carbon  in 
the  shape  of  soot  is  deposited  about. 

To  prevent  this  waste  of  fuel  and  to  secure  its  complete 
combustion,  while  at  the  same  time  all  bad  gases  are  carried 
off,  the  most  perfect  stoves  and  furnaces  ought  to  be  em- 
ployed. These  should  secure  the  most  economical  results 
and  be  at  the  same  time  most  healthful.  By  very  completely 
using  up  the  carbon  and  certain  gases  that  escape  and  defile 
the  air  when  defective  heaters  are  used,  the  best  furnaces, 
properly  attended  to,  are  of  great  hygienic  importance. 

All  smoke  obscures  the  air  and  thereby  lessens  the 
amount  of  sunshine.  Without  smoke  or  dust,  water  does 
not  form  fog  or  cloud.  In  those  of  our  cities  that  burn  soft 
coal,  the  question  of  smoke  prevention  has  become  a  serious 
one.  The  Chicago  "  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Smoke  " 
seems  to  have  accomplished  much  toward  repressing  the 
smoke  nuisance.  The  society  had  to  institute  suits  in  order 
to  achieve  their  results  ;  for  it  was  found  that  few  people 


FUELS    AND    THEIR    PRODUCTS  163 

would  voluntarily  take  measures  to  lessen  the  defilement 
of  the  air  that  they  were  inflicting  upon  others. 

Of  the  various  devices  advocated  for  lessening  smoke  from 
bituminous  coal  used  in  furnaces,  automatic  stokers  are  the 
best.  Fire-brick  arches  and  pre-heated  air  are  also  of  value. 
Steam-jets  do  not  seem  so  generally  reliable.  In  furnaces, 
the  ash-space  should  be  less  than  half  full  of  ashes,  so  that 
air  can  enter  freely.  The  burning  coal  should  be  pushed  to 
the  rear  part  of  grate-bars  when  more  coal  is  added,  and 
this  fresh  coal  is  to  be  put  on  the  front  part  of  the  grate, 
and  not  thrown  upon  glowing  coals.  The  coal  should  be 
fine.  The  doors  should  not  often  be  opened,  and  any  cool- 
ing off  of  the  fire  thereby  is  to  be  prevented.  Thus  the  com- 
bustion is  more  perfect  and  less  smoke  is  caused.  The 
less  fire  there  is,  the  less  air  is  needed  for  it.  To  lessen  a 
fire,  it  is  better  to  shut  off  the  entrance  of  air  rather  than 
to  use  dampers,  etc.  Pitchy  wood,  fats  and  coal  oil  cause 
smoke. 

Anthracite  coal  is  the  best  fuel  that  we  have,  although 
more  expensive  than  softer  coals.  A  pound  of  anthracite 
coal  gives  practically  about  one-and-a-half  times  as  much 
heat  as  wood  does.  Peat  is  of  a  little  more  value  than  wood. 
Charcoal,  coke,  ordinary  soft  coal  and  illuminating  gas  are 
all  between  wood  and  coal  in  value,  a  given  weight  of  one 
of  these  (or  its  equivalent  of  illuminating  gas)  giving  con- 
siderably more  heat  than  wood  or  peat,  yet  somewhat  less 
than  anthracite  coal.  Such  soft  coals  as  the  George's  Creek 
(semi-bituminous)  varieties  are  decidedly  better  than  many 
others  as  regards  heat-power. 

Coal  should  not  be  considered  hygienically  good  if  it  have 
much  sulphur.  The  sulphurous  acid  which  is  formed  by 
burning  sulphur-containing  coal  may  contaminate  the  air  to 
a  serious  extent.  If,  on  analysis,  a  coal  shows  over  one  and 
one-half  per  cent,  of  sulphur,  it  is  hygienically  quite  inferior. 
The  economic  value,  cleanliness  and  great  convenience  of 


164  HEATING 

natural  gas  are  unquestionable.  The  supply,  however,  is 
very  limited.     Gas-stoves  are  mentioned  later. 

Fuel,  then,  by  burning  gives  off  heat.  If  three-fourths 
of  all  the  heat  produced  is  utilized  for  warming,  the  result 
is  to  be  regarded  as  very  good.  Stoves  often  get  less  than 
one-fourth  of  the  heat  that  the  most  economical  utilization 
of  it  would  give.  Open  grates  of  the  least  scientific,  ordi- 
nary patterns  often  have  more  than  nineteen-twentieths  of 
their  heat  go  up  the  chimney  without  warming  the  room 
air  at  all.  Most  heat  is  realized  when  the  combustion  is 
perfect  or  as  nearly  so  as  is  possible. 

If  the  carbon  of  the  fuel  wholly  goes  up  the  chimney  in 
the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  by  union  with  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  that  feeds  the  flame,  the  most  economical  results  are 
got.  If  some  of  the  carbon  goes  off  as  soot  and  smoke,  that 
is  harmful  waste.  But  worst  of  all  is  it  when  the  combus- 
tion is  so  poorly  managed  that  the  carbon  goes  off  as  the 
poisonous  carbonic  oxide  (carbonic  monoxide)  gas  that  is 
spoken  of  in  the  chapter  on  Lighting.  Not  only  is  forty  per 
cent,  of  the  heat  thereby  lost,  but,  by  unintelligent  manage- 
ment of  a  fire  in  a  room  or  in  a  cellar  where  the  gases  can 
escape  into  the  air  of  the  house,  a  very  dangerous  and  odor- 
less poison  is  diffused. 

In  ordinary  furnaces  and  stoves  the  combustion  is  most 
perfect  when  the  layer  of  burning  coals  is  thin  on  the  grate- 
bars  and  the  air  supply  well  adjusted.  If  air  be  carried 
through  a  thick  bed  of  glowing  coals  or  coke,  the  carbonic 
acid  gas  (of  the  combustion)  tends  to  be  carbonized  back  into 
the  very  poisonous  carbonic  oxide  above  spoken  of,  and  the 
amount  of  this  increases  in  proportion  as  the  briskly  burning 
coals  are  deep.  If  the  actively  burning  layer  of  coals  is  very 
deep,  exceedingly  much  of  the  carbonic  oxide  gas  will  be 
produced  instead  of  the  usual  carbonic  acid  (carbonic 
dioxide)  gas  that  is  the  proper  product  of  all  combustioQ. 
If  the  coals  are  only  dimly  glowing,  the  most  economical  and 


HEATING    APPARATUS    AND    CHIMNEYS  165 

healthful  use  of  fuel  is  secured.  Carbonic  oxide  is  also  pro- 
duced when  red-hot  iron  surfaces  are  near  a  fire  surface. 

The  lesson  taught  by  all  this  is  that  stoves  and  fur- 
naces ought  to  be  large  enough  to  insure  sufficient  warmth 
without  keeping  too  great  a  fire.  The  iron-work  must  not 
be  overheated  at  any  time,  and  the  air  supply  should  be 
sufficient  and  controllable.  In  the  (automatic)  self-stoking 
furnaces,  already  alluded  to,  and  in  the  best  self-feeding 
stoves  that  are  large  enough  not  to  need  to  be  overheated 
in  order  to  satisfy  those  who  use  them,  satisfactory  hygienic 
and  economical  results  are  obtained. 

Dampers  in  furnace-pipes,  stove-pipes,  and  in  the  smoke 
flues  of  heating  arrangements  in  general,  by  being  closed  too 
soon  after  coal  has  been  put  on  a  fire,  have  caused  many  a 
poisoning  with  gas,  and  are  always  prejudicial  to  health. 
Much  better  is  it  to  have  tightly  fitting  doors  upon  the  stove 
or  furnace,  so  that  by  regulating  the  supply  of  air  we  can 
completely  control  the  fire. 

Smoke  flues  must  invariably  be  non-combustible,  and 
therefore  they  need  to  have  eight  inches,  or  nearly  that  much, 
of  brick  around  them.  Even  in  the  costliest  architecture, 
wood- work  is  at  times,  by  culpable  negligence,  allowed  to  be 
so  near  to  flues,  fireplace  backings  and  under  hot  hearths, 
that  buildings  are  often  set  fire  to  or  wholly  burned  up 
because  of  such  defective  construction.  Joists  or  any  other 
wood-work  must  never  be  built  into  chimney  walls.  No 
"furring"  should  be  nailed  to  a  chimney,  and  no  wood- 
work should  come  within  an  inch  of  the  outer  walls  of  a 
chimney. 

Chimney  flues,  when  square,  are  to  be  lined  with  brick. 
Cylindrical  earthen  pipes  (unjointed  and  unglazed)  make  an 
excellent  round  flue  lining.  As  such  pipe  comes  in  lengths 
of  about  two  feet,  the  cement-mortar,  used  to  hold  it,  can  be 
made  very  smooth  within.  This  is  very  desirable  as  lessen- 
ing friction.     The  diameter  of  such  a  flue  should  be  from 


l66  HEATING 

eight  to  twelve  inches  for  an  ordinary  house  fire.  A  furnace 
or  fireplace  requires  a  larger  flue  than  a  stove  or  range. 

Each  fire  should  preferably  have  a  separate  flue.  Every 
flue  should  be  as  straight  as  possible,  all  curves  ought  to  be 
very  gradual,  and  in  every  portion  of  its  entire  length  a  flue 
should,  as  above  said,  have  a  very  smooth  inside  surface. 
At  the  top  is  a  chimney-pot  or  contraction  of  the  outlet  so 
as  to  make  this  somewhat  smaller  than  the  diameter  of  the 
flue.  This  chimney-cap  should  be  of  earthenware  or  metal. 
The  draught  is  thereby  made  more  steady. 

The  opening  from  the  fire  into  the  flue  is  also  contracted 
whenever  the  flue  is  unnecessarily  large,  especially  in  fire- 
places. There,  this  contraction  may  be  by  a  sliding  valve 
over  the  "  throatpiece."  Chimney-caps,  when  of  good  pat- 
tern, serve  to  keep  currents  of  air  from  driving  into  and 
down  a  chimney.     Thus  they  help  to  prevent  "  smoking." 

The  top  of  a  chimney  requires  to  be  above  all  ridge- 
poles, gables  or  other  obstructions  to  the  free  flow  of  air  past 
it.  The  limbs  of  trees  occasionally  interfere  with  proper 
chimney  draughts,  and  then  ought  to  be  removed. 

Methods  of  W^arming  Rooms 

Open  grate  fires  have  above  been  said  to  be  by  far  more 
wasteful  of  fuel  than  are  the  other  appliances  used  to  warm 
our  rooms.  They  are  not  a  suitable  means  for  the  exclusive 
heating  of  houses  and  other  buildings  during  the  severe 
winter  of  our  Northern  States.  Not  only  do  they  waste  the 
heat  of  the  fuel,  but  the  scanty  heat  which  they  yield  to  a 
room  cannot  be  well  regulated  and  is  not  uniform.  They 
do  not  ordinarily  provide  for  purity  of  the  air  which  they 
cause  to  be  drawn  into  a  room,  and  they  allow  the  ashes  of 
the  fire  to  enter  the  room  that  they  warm.  Furthermore,  a 
certain  amount  of  gas  can  escape  at  times  out  of  almost  any 
ordinary  grate  and  enter  into  the  air  of  the  room. 

Open   grate  fires,  however,  furnish  very  valuable  venti- 


OPEN    FIREPLACES  167 

lating  flues  wherever  there  is  no  other  special  means  of 
removing  the  bad  air  from  a  room  and  where  at  the  same 
time  there  is  abundant  warmth  suppHed  from  other  sources. 
The  same  purpose  can  equally  well  be  served  by  burning 
lamps  or  gas  flames  in  the  back  and  upper  part  of  the  grate 
or  in  any  suitably  placed  flue  so  arranged  as  to  produce  an 
upward  draught  out  of  the  room  by  means  of  the  heated  air 
which  rises  out  through  the  flue.  A  fire  fed  by  coal  or 
wood  is  much  more  agreeable  to  the  aesthetic  sense  than  a 
gas  flame.  As  for  the  "  fire-logs  "  on  which  minute  gas 
flames  burn  in  more  or  less  successful  imitation  of  burning 
wood,  it  may  be  said  that  they  are  usually  placed  too  far 
out  on  the  floor  and  not  well  enough  back  under  the  flue 
which  they  should  heat  and  cause  to  ventilate  the  room. 
Thereby,  unhealthful  gases  escape  into  the  air  of  the  house. 

Open  fires  heat  the  fireplace  somewhat  and  make  that 
part  of  the  wall  warmer  which  is  near  the  flue.  This  heats 
the  room  only  slightly.  Most  of  the  heat  that  is  got  from 
open  fires,  sunk  into  the  wall  as  they  ordinarily  are,  comes 
by  radiation  of  heat  from  the  fire.  Hence,  in  constructing 
a  fireplace,  we  choose  (for  the  backing)  material  that  con- 
ducts heat  poorly  and  thus  does  not  waste  it  into  the  outer 
wall.  According  to  all  authorities,  bricks  (and  fire-bricks) 
are  several  times  better  than  stone,  slate  or  marble,  and 
probably  more  than  fifty  times  better  as  non-conductors 
than  metals.  Hence  as  little  as  possible  of  iron  or  other 
metals  should  be  used  in  the  back  and  walls  of  a  grate. 
Earthen  materials  are  better. 

The  sides  of  a  fireplace  (technically  called  "  covings  ") 
should  not  be  sunk  straight  into  the  wall,  but  ought  to  flare 
out  into  the  room.  The  most  economical  angle  that  these 
side  walls  can  make  with  the  back  of  the  grate  is  regarded 
as  about  half-way  out  from  a  right  angle,  or  say  at  an  angle 
of  135  degrees.  In  Fig.  17,  this  angle  is  represented  as 
one   of   120    degrees.      If  the  top  of   the  fireplace    slants 


i68 


HEATING 


Fig.  17. 


upward  so  as  to  throw  heat  into  the  room,  the  construction 

must  be  such  that  gas  is 
not  sent  out  beyond  the 
flue  so  as  to  come  into 
the  room  instead  of  being 
carried  off  up  the  chim- 
ney. As  a  precaution 
against  fire,  it  is  well  to 

have  air-spaces  at  least  two  inches  thick  and  somewhat  more 

than  thirty  inches  high  built  in  the  brick  that  are  around 

the  fireplace  (see  Fig.  17)  ;  for  air  is  a  very  much  poorer 

conductor  of  heat 

than   fire-brick   or 

anything  else  that 

we  can  use. 

Fireplaces  which 

are  set   out  some- 
what from  the  wall, 

like     the     various 

modifications    and 

improv  ements 

upon    the    Galton 

grate,  allow  much 

more  of   the   heat 

produced  to  enter 

the  room.  In  these, 

when  properly  con- 
structed, fresh  air 

can    circulate    be- 
hind and  come  out 

into     the    room, 

conveying      much 

warmth  to  the  air 

and    thus    getting 

much  more  heat  from  the  fuel.     Such  a  grate  (that  of  E.  A. 


Fig.  18. 


FIREPLACES    AND    STOVES  169 

Jackson)  is  shown  in  Fig.  18.  Here  the  material  may  be 
rough  metal  if  thick,  perfectly  cast  and  never  made  very 
hot.     The  firepot  should  be  lined  with  fire-brick. 

The  contrivance  known  as  a  "Baltimore  heater"  or  any 
modification  of  it  adapted  to  a  grate  or  stove  (by  which  the 
air  of  any  living-room  is  heated  and  carried  up  to  warm  a 
room  above)  cannot  be  hygienically  commended.  Such 
arrangements  are  sure  to  carry  up  air  that  is  bad  as  well 
as  warm.  They  are  also  apt  to  use  much  coal.  When  the 
mechanical  parts  of  these  are  out  of  order,  poisonous  gas 
will  escape  into  the  air  of  the  upper  rooms  heated  by  such 
devices. 

Franklin  stoves  are  akin  to  the  modernized  fireplaces. 
They  are  essentially  fireplaces  set  out  from  the  wall.  Hence 
the  cheerful  effect  of  an  open  fire  is  had  with  some  of  the 
greater  economy  of  heat  that  a  good  stove  secures.  The 
fire-containing  portion  of  such  Franklin  stoves  should  be 
lined  with  fire-brick.  The  outside  should  be  of  soapstone. 
In  these  as  in  all  stoves,  dampers  between  the  fire  and  the 
chimney  may  be  a  source  of  great  danger.  The  connections 
between  the  stove  and  the  chimney  must  be  gas-tight  and  so 
arranged  that  no  gas  can  escape  out  of  any  piping  or  joints 
and  thus  poison  the  air  of  the  room.  They  must  not  be 
heated  very  hot,  or  they  make  the  air  disagreeable.  Vessels 
of  water  should  usually  be  on  or  near  them  as  with  ordinary 
stoves.  Wire  guards  are  useful  things  to  have  at  times  in 
front  of  all  open  fires  in  order  to  prevent  coals  from  flying 
far  out  and  causing  damage  from  fire. 

Stoves  in  which  the  fire  is  closed  in  by  tight  doors  and 
?ron-work,  and  where  also  the  coal  is  supplied  by  an  auto- 
matic, "self-feeding"  arrangement,  are  much  more  eco- 
nomical of  coal  than  the  various  grates  and  open  stoves. 
Such  stoves  need  coal  of  good  quality,  free  from  rock  and 
slate  and  which  does  not  "coke  up."  They  are  so  eco- 
nomical, both  as  regards  their  first  cost  and  the  expense  of 


I70  HEATING 

supplying  them  with  fuel,  and  are  so  convenient,  that  they 
inevitably  commend  themselves  to  a  great  portion  of  our 
population.  Hence  it  is  in  the  interest  of  health  to  indicate 
the  few  dangers  that  are  associated  with  these,  and  the  most 
important  precautions  for  their  use. 

All  stoves  should  be  so  well  constructed  that  no  dampers 
are  7ieeded  between  the  fire  and  the  chimjtey.  This  can  be 
effected  by  having  the  doors  so  tightly  fitting  that  the  fire 
can  be  regulated  entirely  by  means  of  the  doors  and  the 
valves  in  them.  Such  perfectly  fitting  doors  add  to  the  cost 
of  the  stove.  There  are  so  very  many  kinds  of  stoves  in 
general  use  that  a  complete  mention  of  the  merits  and  de- 
merits of  each  variety  would  be  less  practically  instructive 
than  to  have  classed  all  alike  as  regards  the  harmfulness  of 
any  dampers  present  in  the  stove-pipe.  Their  mechanical 
construction  commonly  allows,  even  with  the  tightest  pipes 
and  joints,  some  leakage  of  gases.  This  is  aggravated  by 
preventing  the  free  escape  of  these  gases. 

Base-burning  stoves  are  usually  defective  in  this  regard. 
The  shut-off  valves  of  these  and  the  pipe-dampers  of  stoves 
in  general  cause  much  dangerous  gas  to  enter  the  air  if  they 
be  stopped  up  as  soon  as  coal  is  put  on  a  fire,  as  is  ordi- 
narily done  at  night  where  fires  are  not  lighted  afresh  every 
day.  The  practice  of  opening  the  front  and  top  of  a  stove 
to  suppress  the  fire  is  apt  to  allow  harmful  gas  to  enter  the 
air  of  the  room. 

Stoves  need  to  have  the  fire-pot  well  lined  with  fire-brick 
or  similarly  good  non-conducting  mineral  substance.  Then 
the  outer  air,  that  comes  near  the  stove,  is  not  heated  so 
as  to  cause  unpleasant  odors  to  arise  from  the  burning  of 
particles  of  organic  dust.  Other  objections  to  overheated 
iron  have  already  been  mentioned  (see  page  165).  A  cylin- 
drical sheet-metal  "  jacket  "  or  mantle  around  a  stove  and 
nearly  reaching  the  floor,  so  arranged  that  air  can  enter  the 
space  between  it  and  the  body  of  the  stove,  is  an  aid  to  the 


GOOD    AND    BAD    STOVES  171 

equable  warming  of  the  room.  The  air  between  is  caused 
to  rise  by  being  heated,  and  fresh  air  then  enters  from  below 
so  that  the  entire  air  of  the  room  is  thus  made  to  circulate 
better  than  is  the  case  if  no  such  device  is  used.  A  still 
better  plan  is  to  have  the  fresh  air  enter  from  outside  as 
indicated  by  Fig.  12  (on  page  96).  Fig.  13  shows  a  "jack- 
eted "  wood-burning  stove. 

Stoves  of  economical  construction  that  are  set  up  in  the 
ordinary  manner  do  not  require  enough  air  for  the  combus- 
tion of  their  fuel  to  secure  a  complete  ventilation  of  rooms 
in  which  they  are  used  and  in  which  a  number  of  people  are 
breathing  and  lights  are  burning.  Open  grates  are  superior 
in  this  respect  ;  for  they  carry  large  quantities  of  warmed 
unburnt  air  up  the  chimney.  Stoves  can  be  adapted  some- 
what to  effect  the  same  result  by  arranging  a  ventilating 
opening  into  the  flue  at  the  lower  part  of  the  room  and 
beneath  the  entrance  of  the  stove-pipe.  This  can  be  regu- 
lated by  a  perfectly  fitting  valve. 

An  excellent  pattern  of  domestic  stove,  that  suffices  for 
the  hygienic  warming  of  a  small  living-room  of  a  working- 
man's  family,  is  shown  in  Fig.  42.  The  same  stove  serves 
for  cooking  food  at  all  times  of  the  year.  It  carries  off  the 
odors  of  the  food  that  is  being  cooked,  and  can  readily  be 
adjusted  in  a  moment  so  that,  in  summer,  not  much  warmth 
is  given  off  into  the  room. 

All  combustion  of  fuel  in  a  stove  or  other  heating 
apparatus  not  only  uses  up  oxygen,  but  also  gives  off  car- 
bonic acid  gas  and  other  products,  some  of  them  very 
poisonous.  This  repetition  of  a  fundamental  fact  deserves 
to  be  emphasized  for  the  reason  that  dealers  in  stoves,  as 
well  as  the  manufacturers  who  produce  such  wares,  induce 
people  to  buy  certain  kinds  of  stoves  that  are  rendered 
dangerous  through  lack  of  provision  for  removal  of  these 
harmful  gases.  Charcoal  braziers,  oil-stoves,  gas-stoves, 
"patent-fuel "  stoves  (using  charcoal  or  pressed  carbon  with 


172 


HEATING 


oxygen-giving  salts  added)  may  all  be  classed  under  this 
head.  These  latter,  called  "safety  fuels  "  or  having  various 
similarly  attractive  names  have,  like  charcoal  and  gas- 
stoves,  caused  very  many  cases  of  poisoning. 

The  interests  of  trade  cause  the  dealers  to  state  that  their 
fuels  are  harmless.  Such  things  can  be  very  harmful,  and 
should  never  be  used  for  warming  rooms  unless  the  gases 
resulting  from  combustion  are  provided  for  by  flues  that 
efifiriently  remove  these  noxious  products  to  a  distance  from 
the  room  that  is  being  warmed,  and  do  not 
allow  them  to  escape  and  contaminate  the  air. 
The  same  necessity  exists  with  regard  to  gas- 
stoves  and  the  other  stoves  and  heaters  that 
warm  by  burning  fuel  in  a  room.  (See  Fig. 
19.  The  gas-burners  are  there  represented 
in  the  lower  third  of  the  diagram.) 

Unless  water  is  furnished  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  open  dishes  in  rooms,  all  simple 
methods  of  warming  buildings  tend  to  cause  the 
heated  air  to  be  too  dry.  An  exception  to 
this  rule  is  that,  in  hot-air  furnaces  (shortly  to 
be  spoken  of),  the  use  of  water-pans  in  the  hot- 
air  chamber  rectifies  the  deficiency  provided  that  the  furnace 
be  properly  constructed  and  well  attended  to.  The  cus- 
tomary, unhealthful  dryness  results  because  a  given  amount 
of  cold  air  can  hold  much  less  moisture  than  when  the  same 
volume  of  air  is  warm.  The  air  that  enters  a  house  in  cold 
weather  has  relatively  very  little  moisture  in  it.  When  this 
same  air  becomes  comfortably  warm,  but  yet  has  received 
no  extra  moisture,  it  is  too  dry  for  health  or  comfort,  and 
is  furthermore  injurious  to  pianos,  wood-work,  etc.  The 
amount  of  "relative  humidity  "  (see  page  17)  in  our  heated 
rooms  should  not  be  less  than  thirty-five  nor  more  than 
sixty-five  per  cent. 

Water ^  therefore ^  needs  to  be  supplied  to  the  air  in  most  of 


Fig.  19. 


NECESSARY    PRECAUTIONS  173 

our  warmed  rooms  in  winter.  Furnaces,  as  just  said,  if  of 
the  best  quality  and  intelligently  cared  for,  have  an  adequate 
automatic  arrangement  which  gives  off  water-vapor  in  suit- 
able proportions  to  the  warm  air  before  that  is  conducted 
through  pipes  into  the  rooms.  All  other  usual  means  of 
heating  need  surfaces  of  water  to  be  exposed  somehow  to 
the  air  of  warmed  rooms.  Whether  an  open  fire,  a  stove, 
steam  or  hot-water  radiating  coils  be  employed,  none  of 
them  supply  moisture  to  the  air.  Therefore  a  little  moisture 
ought  to  be  provided.  The  quantity  needed  varies  of  course 
with  the  weather  and  with  the  amount  brought  into  a  room 
as  snow  or  dampness  on  clothing. 

Flat  pans  of  earthenware  or  non-rusting  metal  may  be  set 
about  under  furniture  if  it  be  desired  to  conceal  them. 
Ordinarily  they  are  put  wherever  they  will  be  out  of  the  way. 
Clean  water  is  poured  into  these  when  the  air  is  too  dry. 
They  give  off  moisture  in  proportion  as  they  are  kept  warm 
by  being  near  the  source  of  heat.  They  should  not  be 
allowed  to  dry  out  through  negligence. 

The  heating  appliances  above  spoken  of,  while  causing  a 
movement  of  air  and  some  natural  ventilation,  do  not  insure 
that  the  air  which  they  cause  to  be  drawn  into  a  room  is 
necessarily  of  good  quality.  The  air  that  enters  a  steam- 
heated  room  is  not  at  all  pure,  as  a  rule,  unless  by  special 
means  it  is  made  so.  This  will  be  found  more  fully  ex- 
plained in  later  pages. 

An  open  fire  causes  currents  of  air  to  be  drawn  into  the 
room  where  it  is  burning.  The  air  may  be  pure  or  impure 
according  to  its  source.  It  may  be  the  freshest  and  cleanest 
of  sun-lighted  out-door  air,  or  it  may  come  from  foul 
vaults  or  from  corridors  that  are  thickly  strewn  with  unclean 
dust  and  dirt  from  the  street  and  possibly  containing  the 
germs  of  disease.  This  dust  enters  a  room  with  the  air 
drawn  in.  The  importance  of  having  the  air  supplied  from 
the  cleanest  possible  source  is  accordingly  evident. 


=  VENTILATING  OUTLET   FLUES. 
=  PI  PES  FOR  HEATED  AIR. 

Fig. 


W.V.  =  WINTER  VENTILATION. 
S.V.  =  SUMMER  VENTILATION. 


Combined  ventilation  and  warming  by  heated  air  from  furnace. 
(After  Gaertner.) 


FURNACES  175 

Hot-air  furnaces,  when  well  constructed  in  every  re- 
spect and  intelligently  adapted  for  the  building  and  situation 
in  which  they  are  used,  afford — all  things  considered — the 
best  single  means  of  both  warming  and  ventilating  at  the 
same  time.  The  paragraphs  just  preceding  this  indicate 
some  of  the  merits  which  a  properly  adjusted  furnace  must 
have  in  order  to  be  considered  hygienically  fit  for  dwellings 
and  larger  edifices.  Furnaces  possess  the  great  advantage 
of  being  comparatively  inexpensive.  Indirect  heating 
through  coils  of  steam-pipe — the  only  kind  of  heating  that 
can  fairly  be  compared  with  furnaces — is  in  every  way  more 
costly  and  difficult  to  attend  to.  Yet»  if  badly  planned,  de- 
fectively put  up  and  shiftlessly  managed,  any  system  can  be 
very  unsatisfactory. 

A  hot-air  furnace  arrangement  (see  Fig.  20)  comprises 
several  essential  features.  The  furnace  is  usually  in  the 
basement.  Its  doors,  both  that  through  which  coal  is  thrown 
in  and  the  one  through  which  ashes  are  removed,  then  open 
into  the  cellar.  The  extra  door  or  opening,  provided  for 
the  admission  of  the  air  necessary  to  the  combustion  of  the 
coal,  opens  also  into  the  cellar,  since  the  purity  of  the  air  that 
feeds  the  fire  is  not  of  material  importance.  [Of  course  the 
air  in  every  part  of  our  buildings  should  be  as  pure  as  pos- 
sible ;  that  is  to  be  insisted  upon  at  all  times.] 

From  this  furnace,  a  flue  goes  to  the  chimney.  All  of 
these  parts  must  be  in  as  few  castings  as  possible,  judiciously 
contrived  and  so  well  made  that  no  gases  leak  out  in  any 
way.  The  parts  last  much  longer  if  kept  very  clean  and  if 
the  pipes  are  taken  down  before  summer,  then  cleaned  and 
left  in  a  dry  place.  The  flue  should  at  the  same  time  be 
stopped  up.  Moisture  ought  to  be  kept  away  from  the  fur- 
nace during  warm  weather.  Some  prefer  that  wrought-iron 
or  steel  be  used  for  the  fire-pots  in  which  the  coal  burns. 

Cast-iron  is  regarded  by  certain  observers  as  being  some- 
what pervious  to  gases  and  hence  a  less  healthful  material  for 


176  HEATING 

the  purpose.  Practically  it  is  not  found  that  any  gas  escapes 
through  these  if  they  be  made  suitably  thick  and  no  flaws 
exist.  Cast-iron  is  the  least  expensive  of  these  materials  and 
is  also  very  durable.  For  these  reasons  it  is  almost  always 
used  for  the  fire-pots.  These  are  very  often  unlined,  because 
thereby  the  heat  goes  more  readily  into  the  hot-air  chamber 
than  when  lined  with  fire-clay.  Lined  fire-pots  are  best. 
When  well  made,  these  cast-iron  furnaces  answer  every  pur- 
pose.    They  should  always  be  fully  large  enough. 

Around  all  parts  of  this  furnace,  excepting  the  front  por- 
tion (reserved  for  the  doors  just  spoken  of),  a  hot-air  cham- 
ber is  built,  ordinarily  of  brick.  This  hot-air  room  should 
not  be  too  small.  It  is  usually  not  made  high  enough.  In 
any  case,  it  ought  to  be  large  enough  to  permit  a  man  to 
enter  by  a  small,  tightly  closing  door,  and  to  get  about  in  it 
for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  out  the  dust  that  gathers  there. 
The  hot-air  chamber  also  contains  a  pan  or,  better,  a  care- 
fully adapted  series  of  pans  holding  a  regulatable  amount  of 
water,  automatically  supplied  by  a  pipe  coming  from  a  tank 
outside.     The  water  supply  must  not  be  excessive. 

This  hot-air  chamber  and  the  furnace  should  usually 
be  in  or  near  the  centre  of  the  house  or  other  building  to  be 
heated.  Thereby  the  heat  is  as  a  rule  more  easily  and 
evenly  distributed  as  desired.  The  chimney  then  also,  by 
being  in  the  centre  of  the  building,  contributes  somewhat  to 
the  warming  of  the  rooms  around  it.  It  may  in  many  cases 
be  preferable  to  have  the  furnace  and  hot-air  chamber 
somewhat  away  from  the  centre  and  toward  that  portion  of 
the  building  which  is  most  exposed  to  the  prevailing  cold 
winds  of  winter. 

Into  the  hot-air  chamber,  as  pure  air  as  possible  is 
received  through  a  sufficiently  large  galvanized  iron  or  other 
tube  from  a  carefully  chosen  place  out-of-doors.  The  best 
plan  is  to  have  this  fresh  air  go  to  a  fresh-air  room  before  it 
enters  the  furnace  chamber.     This  fresh-air  room  is  in  direct 


SUPPLYING     PURE    AIR    TO    FURNACES  177 

communication  with  the  hot-air  chamber  and  not  at  all 
open  to  air  from  the  cellar.  Very  few  people  are  inclined 
to  make  the  outlay  of  money  and  effort  necessary  to  insure 
that  the  air-supply  is  sufficient  and  constantly  purified 
by  the  careful  filtration  that  an  ideal  ventilation  calls  for. 
Hence  especial  pains  must  be  taken  in  putting  in  the 
furnace,  to  see  that  there  is  ample  provision  for  the 
entrance  of  air  and  that  this  is  from  the  purest  source 
available. 

The  outside  opening  of  the  supply  tube  for  fresh  air 
should  be  located  a  number  of  feet  above  the  ground. 
Practical  furnace-setters  (that  is,  mechanics)  prefer  to  put 
it  only  four  or  five  feet  above  the  ground.  It  should  be  in 
as  clean  a  place  as  possible  and  far  away  from  any  garbage, 
drain-opening,  sewer,  vent-pipe  or  anything  else  that  may 
contaminate  the  air.  A  fine  wire  screen  on  the  outside 
serves  to  intercept  coarse  dirt  and  vegetable  matter.  Any 
screen,  especially   when    clogged,  lessens   the    flow  of   air. 

Such  a  screen  should  slant  considerably  inward  and 
downward,  thus  affording  a  larger  surface.  In  the  course 
of  this  fresh-air  conducting  tube,  an  air-filtering  surface 
may  be  interposed,  provided  that  some  means  of  forcing 
the  air  through  it  be  employed.  This  filter  may  be  of 
cotton-batting  or  other  suitable  material,  and  other  air- 
cleaners  may  be  used  as  explained  in  the  chapter  on  Venti- 
lation. Such  an  air-filter  requires  a  special  arrangement  of 
the  air-conductor,  and  in  certain  conditions  of  the  wind 
may  prevent  air  from  passing  unless  a  blowing-fan  (see  Fig. 
29)  be  used. 

Settling-chambers  serve  to  keep  out  considerable  dust, 
but  are  not  much  used  ;  for  they  add  considerably  to  the 
cost,  especially  if  a  spray  of  water  be  used  in  them  for 
arresting  the  dust  of  the  incoming  air.  All  air-conduc- 
tors and  hot-air  chambers  need  to  be  cleaned  at  times. 
They  should  have  regulating  slide  valves  or  other  arrange- 


178  HEATING 

ments  for  lessening  the  flow  of  air  through  the  tube,  when  this 
flow  is  excessive  because  of  a  strong  wind  blowing  directly 
upon  the  outside  opening  of  the  fresh-air  conductor.  In 
some  cases  it  is  reported  to  be  advantageous  to  have  several 
(instead  of  one)  of  these  large  tubes  for  the  inflow  of  air. 

Such  cases  are  afforded  by  large  school-houses  or  other 
isolated  buildings  where  four  such  tubes  can  enter  (one 
from  each  side  of  the  building)  and  where  some  one  is 
attending  carefully  to  the  fire.  Then  the  air  can  be  allowed 
to  flow  in  through  the  one  of  the  fresh-air  pipes  that  is  ex- 
posed to  the  wind.     The  others  are  kept  tightly  closed. 

According,  to  practical  furnace-setters,  such  complicated 
devices  are  not  generally  useful.  Such  experienced  people 
find  that  a  single  fresh-air  inlet  answers  best.  It  should 
receive  its  air  from  the  west,  northwest  or  north  side  of 
the  building,  to  correspond  to  the  prevailing  direction  of 
our  winter  winds  (in  most  parts  of  North  America).  The 
size  of  this  single  fresh-air  inflow  pipe  should  be  about 
three-fourths  of  the  total  area  of  the  pipes  supplied  with  hot 
air  by  the  hot-air  chamber. 

Cold  air,  supplied  to  the  hot-air  chamber,  very  soon 
becomes  warm.  The  temperature  that  all  of  this  air  there 
reaches  is  rarely  much  above  150°  F.,  and  is  usually  less 
than  that  unless  the  furnace  be  heated  too  hot.  Probably 
many  of  the  microorganisms,  that  chance  to  enter  with  the 
unfiltered  air,  are  destroyed  by  the  heat  of  the  hot-air 
chamber,  especially  if  it  be  not  very  dry.  If  the  air  be  not 
overheated  and  not  too  dry,  it  is  very  agreeable,  especially 
when  it  has  been  purified  by  careful  straining  before  it 
enters  the  hot-air  chamber. 

Out  from  the  hot-air  chamber — perhaps  through  an  inter- 
vening chamber  where  cold  air  can  be  further  mixed  with 
the  hot  air  if  desired — the  warmed  air  is  carried  to  various 
parts  of  the  building  by  means  of  a  series  of  pipes  consid- 
erably more  than  nine  inches  in  diameter  and  usually  made 


FURNACES  179 

of  sheet  iron.  The  arrangement  of  these  must  differ  greatly 
according  to  the  house  or  building  for  which  they  are 
planned.  The  colder  parts  of  the  house  should  have  their 
supply  from  the  upper  portion  of  the  hot-air  chamber,  since 
that  is  hottest.  Most  attention  must  be  given  to  heating 
the  lower  floor  and  the  colder  side  of  the  house.  As  above 
indicated,  it  is  in  some  situations  found  quite  necessary  to 
arrange  the  furnace,  hot-air  chamber  and  fresh-air  inflow 
pipe  toward  the  northwest  part  of  a  building.  Usually  it  is 
found  best  to  have  the  long  pipes  going  toward  the  east  and 
south  ;  while  toward  the  northern  and  western  side,  the 
pipes  should  be  shorter.  All  of  these  pipes  must  rise  con- 
stantly ;  since  the  hot  air,  that  they  are  to  convey,  tends  to 
rise  and  not  to  move  in  horizontal  directions. 

Registers,  similar  to  that  seen  in  Fig.  22  (on  page  183), 
with  tight  valves,  are  placed  in  the  floor  or  on  the  wall 
where  the  hot-air  pipes  enter  a  room.  Valves  or  dampers 
are  also  needed  in  the  course  of  the  hot-air  pipes  under 
certain  circumstances,  and  especially  so  where  the  heat  is 
to  be  regulated  from  the  lower  part  of  the  house.  It  is 
usually  regarded  by  furnace  mechanics  that  it  is  best  to 
have  registers  opening  in  the  floor,  after  the  fashion  of  that 
seen  in  Fig.  22.  When  low  down  on  the  wall,  as  in  Fig.  23, 
they  are  less  satisfactory.  The  location  indicated  in  Fig. 
20  is  better.  There  they  are  placed  higher  up  on  the  wall 
so  as  to  be  above  the  heads  of  people  who  may  be  in  the 
room.  In  any  case,  the  hot  air  will  rise  to  the  top  of  the 
room.  We  therefore  gain  by  introducing  it  high  up  on 
the  wall.  The  slats,  which  by  being  manipulated  cause  the 
heat  to  be  shut  off  or  let  on,  should  as  a  rule  slant  upward 
when  the  register  is  partially  opened.  They  thereby  throw 
the  heat  toward  the  ceiling.  When,  for  any  reason,  it  is 
desired  to  throw  heat  (from  a  wall  register)  far  out  into  a 
room,  it  is  well  to  have  a  short,  projecting  board  or  slab 
above  and  another  below  the  register. 


l8o  HEATING 

With  the  hot-air  arrangement  seen  in  Fig.  20  is  given  a  system  of 
ventilation,  the  principles  of  which  will  be  explained  in  the  following 
chapter.  If  an  open  fireplace  be  in  the  warm  inner  wall  in  which  the 
register  is  placed,  and  if  in  that  fireplace  a  fire  is  maintained  or  gas 
flames  are  kept  burning  to  draw  air  out  of  the  room  and  up  the  flue, 
the  arrangement  affords  a  desirable  complement  to  a  system  of  hot-air 
furnace  heating.  We  see  houses  made  without  fireplaces  or  ventilating 
flues  and  so  very  tightly  built  that  no  air  can  get  out  except  very  slowly. 
Such  houses  are  not  the  easiest  to  heat  by  warm  air  ;  because,  if  no 
cold  air  or  foul  air  can  be  carried  off,  it  is  not  easy  for  warm  air  to  flow 
in  to  take  its  place. 

Certain  systems  of  warming  and  ventilating  buildings  by  hot  air  and 
which  at  the  same  time  have  "  dry  closet "  systems  combined  with  their 
hot-air  flues  have  shown  hygienic  defects  which  are  spoken  of  on  page 
99  and  elsewhere. 

Steam-heating  is  extensively  employed,  especially  in 
large  buildings.  It  is  much  more  manageable  than  hot  water 
or  hot  air,  which  require  that  the  rooms,  into  which  they  are 
successfully  introduced,  be  (at  least  obliquely)  above  the 
heater  or  furnace.  Where  steam  is  employed,  the  heat  can 
be  carried  to  a  very  distant  room  of  an  institution,  or  even 
to  a  remote  building,  in  pipes  which  take  up  very  little  space, 
and  whose  heat  can  be  controlled  very  completely.  The 
steam  can  be  made  to  warm  intervening  rooms  as  much 
or  as  little  as  desired. 

A  low  pressure — of  less  than  five  pounds  per  square  inch 
— is  commonly  employed  in  warming  buildings  by  steam- 
heat.  From  the  boiler,  it  is  usual  to  have  two  wrought-iron 
pipes  go  out  to  make  a  continuous  circuit,  one  pipe  carrying 
out  steam  from  the  boiler  and  the  other  returning  this  steam 
as  condensed  (but  yet  hot)  water  to  the  boiler.  There  it  is 
reheated  to  be  sent  out  again  as  steam.  The  pipes  through 
which  this  goes  out  from  the  boiler  are  necessarily  larger 
than  those  which  return  the  condensed  steam  in  the  form 
of  hot  water,  since  the  water  takes  up  much  less  space  than 
when  it  is  expanded  into  steam.     If  these  pipes  are  covered 


STEAM-HEATING  l8l 

with  felt  or  other  non-conducting  material,  less  heat  is  lost 
from  them  than  when  the  iron  is  wholly  uncovered. 

In  the  course  of  the  steam-pipe  circuit,  or  rather  on  side 
circuits  from  the  main  pipes,  radiators  are  introduced  in 
order  to  offer  a  large  surface  to  the  air  and  thus  give  off 
much  warmth  by  radiation  whenever  the  flow  is  not  shut  off 
by  closing  the  inflow  valve  with  which  each  radiator  is  pro- 
vided. These  radiators  (see  Fig.  21)  are  preferably  made 
of  rough  cast-iron,  because  a  rough  metal  surface  radiates 
off  heat  much  better  than  a  smooth  one.  Lampblack  or 
various  white-lead  paints  as  coatings  cause  more  heat  to  be 
radiated  from  a  given  radiator  than  when  bronze  is  used  for 
coating  the  metal. 

Usually  the  steam  enters  on  one  side  of  the  base  of  the 
radiator,  and  on  the  other  side  the  condensation-water  pipe 
goes  out.  Single-pipe  radiators  can  be  used,  the  single 
pipes  allowing  the  condensation-water  to  flow  out  along  the 
bottom. 

Steam  that  is  superheated,  as  at  a  high  pressure,  does 
not  cause  the  heat  of  the  radiator  to  be  proportionately  in- 
creased although  the  return  condensation-water  is  thereby 
caused  to  be  hotter.  According  to  a  commission  of  ex- 
perts, reporting  to  the  Manchester  Assurance  Company  and 
whose  opinion  is  largely  accepted  as  correct,  high-pressure 
steam-heating  pipes,  being  much  hotter  than  where  only  low- 
pressure  steam  is  used,  are  capable  of  causing  fire  in  the 
wood-work  through  which  the  hottest  pipes  pass. 

The  warmth  given  off  in  condensation  of  the  steam 
is  what  is  depended  upon  for  heating,  rather  than  the  heat 
of  the  steam  as  such.  The  steam  in  the  usual  two-pipe 
arrangement  is  first  conducted  by  a  main  pipe,  which  has  no 
stop-cocks,  to  the  highest  part  of  the  steam-pipe  system  of 
the  building.  Thence  it  goes  downward  and  backward  to 
the  radiators,  where  it  is  condensed  (to  produce  warmth) 
and  whence  it  is  returned,  as  hot  water,  to  the  boiler. 


l82 


HEATING 


The  condensation  of  steam  in  the  radiators  produces  a 
vacuum.  To  counteract  the  effect  of  the  uneven  pressure 
thereby  developed,  devices  are  applied  so  as  to  allow  air  to 
enter  and  prevent  the  escape  of  steam  through  the  return 
hot-water  pipes.  Yet  these  contrivances  are  not  always 
effective,  and  consequent  startling  "  hammering "  noises 
occur  at  irregular  intervals  even  in  some  of  the  costHest 
steam-heated  buildings. 

The  radiator  gives  out  the  heat  directly  into  the  air  about 
it,  but  of  itself  it  brings  no  air  and  no  moisture  into  the 
room  in  which  it  stands.  The  radiator  simply  causes  the 
air,  which  it  has  heated,  to  rise,  and  thus  produces  a  slight 
circulation  of  air  very  much  as  an  ordinary  stove  would  do. 
It  however  does  not  remove  any  of  the  bad  air  out  of  the 
room,  as  a  stove  (or,  better,  an  open  fire)  does  through  its 
draught.  Neither,  on  the  other  hand,  does  it  give  off  any 
harmful  gases  such  as  come  from  a  defective  or  badly 
managed  stove.  A  good  hot-air  furnace  well  supplied  with 
pure,  fresh  air  is  decidedly  preferable  to  the  ordinary  use 
of  radiators  as  a  means  of  warming  and 
at  the  same  time  ventilating  buildings  of 
compact  dimensions.  When  rooms  are 
warmed  by  radiators  as  just  described, 
we  speak  of  the  method  as  direct  steam- 
heating. 

Radiators  are  much  more  suitable  for 
warming   rooms  when  arranged  in  what 
is  called  the   direct-ijidirect  manner  (as 
illustrated  by  Fig.  21).     Thereby,  fresh 
air  enters  the   room   from    out-of-doors 
through  an  opening  in  the  wall  and  can 
be  made  to  pass  through  an  efficient  dust- 
strainer  if  desired.     The  amount  entering  is  controlled  by 
the  regulating  damper.     This  air,  as  pure  as  possible,  rises 
when  heated,  and — as  a  natural  result  of  this — more  fresh 


STEAM-HEATING 


183 


air  is  drawn  in  to  be  warmed  in  its  turn.  Then  it  follows, 
in  its  circulation  through  the  room,  that  air  which  has  pre- 
viously been  warmed  in  the  same  manner. 

Indirect  heating  is  the  term  used  to  indicate  such  adap- 
tation of  steam-coils  as  is  shown  in  Figs.  22  and  23.     Steam 


is  turned  on  to  heat  the  convoluted  radiator  pipes,  and  then 
these  cause  the  inflowing  fresh  air  to  become  warmed  by 
contact  with  them.  Therefrom  it  rises  and  enters  as  a  warm 
current  into  a  room  or  a  series  of  rooms  above.  This  air  is 
of  healthful  quality,  since  it  comes  from  a  pure  source  unless 
the  arrangement  be  defective  in  that  very  important  respect. 
This  air  may  be  somewhat  too  dry,  as  explained  on  page  172. 


i84 


HEATING 


In  that  case,  the  remedy  consists  in  supplying  moisture  by 
pans  of  clean  water  or  by  other  means. 

In  the  indirect  steam-heating  arrangement  shown  in  Fig. 
23,  the  damper  is  represented  as  lowered  so  as  to  make  all 
the   inflowing  fresh  air  pass  between  the  heated  radiating 


V/£W  OrR£QULATIN(X  DBVICC 


FIG.  83. 


pipes.  Thus  the  air  becomes  warmed  in  passing  through. 
It  then  goes  out  of  the  opening  IV  and  rises  in  the  warm- 
air  ducts.  If  the  sliding  damper  be  raised  so  as  partially 
to  close  the  opening  W,  and  to  open  C  to  the  same  extent, 
some  of  the  cool  air  passes  out  at  C  and  mingles  with  warm 
air.     By  thus  mixing  the  warm  and  the  cool  air  and  by  reg- 


STEAM-HEATING  185 

ulating  the  number  of  radiating  pipes  through  which  steam 
is  passed,  any  degree  of  warmth  in  the  fresh  air  sent  into  a 
number  of  rooms  can  thus  be  secured.  This  arrangement 
represents  the  best  kind  of  steam-heating.  It  is  however,  as 
a  rule,  more  costly  than  the  other  methods  of  heating  so  far 
considered,  both  as  regards  the  necessary  outlay  for  the 
entire  equipment  and  in  the  expense  of  running. 

In  large  hotels,  extensive  manufactories  and  other  places 
where  exhaust  steam  (reduced  to  a  low  pressure)  can  be  had 
from  boilers  (used  also  for  other  purposes)  and  where  a  skilled 
engineer  is  regularly  present,  steam  affords  the  best  means 
of  heating.  The  readiness  with  which  it  can  be  sent  to  a  re- 
mote part  of  the  building,  and  the  promptness  with  which  it 
can  be  controlled  by  turning  it  on  or  shutting  it  off  entirely 
or  partially,  make  it,  if  well  arranged,  the  most  satisfac- 
tory means  of  warming  such  places.  It  is,  then,  compact, 
prompt  and  manageable. 

For  dwellings,  however,  it  is  less  satisfactory  than  warm- 
air  furnaces.  Hot-water  heaters,  if  of  the  very  best  kind  and 
well  managed,  are  there  preferable  to  steam.  The  original 
cost  of  hot-water  piping  and  radiators  for  a  given  establish- 
ment is  greater  than  that  of  steam  ;  for  steam,  being  hotter, 
requires  perhaps  only  two-thirds  as  much  radiator-pipe  sur- 
face as  is  needed  for  a  hot-water  system. 

Experienced  scientific  horticultural  experimenters  report 
that  plants  thrive  as  well  with  one  of  these  two  kinds  of 
heat  as  with  the  other.  The  two  appear  to  be  hygienically 
nearly  the  same,  with  a  slight  preference  to  be  given  to  hot- 
water  heating,  if  the  radiators  are  to  be  employed  in  the 
ordinary,  dii-ect  manner.  Hot-water  heating  is  also  excel- 
lent for  the  direct-indirect  method  shown  in  Fig.  21.  For 
the  indirect  method  (see  Figs.  22  and  23),  hot  water  is  not 
satisfactory. 

Hot-water  heating  depends  upon  the  familiar  physical 
fact  that,  in   a   circuit   of   continuous,   vertically  arranged 


Fig.  24. 
Hot-water  system. 


WARMING    BY    HOT    WATER  187 

pipes,  water  that  is  at  all  warmer  than  the  rest  is  thereby 
somewhat  expanded  and  therefore  lighter.  Hence  it  tends 
to  rise,  while  that  which  is  cooler  will  settle  to  the  bottom. 
If,  then,  any  kind  of  good  water-heater  be  in  the  central 
part  of  the  basement  of  a  dwelling,  and  from  it  a  system  of 
pipes  be  arranged  somewhat  as  in  Fig,  24,  the  water,  when 
heated,  will  flow  out  through  the  pipes  at  the  top  of  the 
heater  and  will  rise  to  the  highest  portion  of  the  pipe 
system.  Thence  it  settles  as  it  becomes  cooler.  The  water 
that  is  coolest  of  all  (and  therefore  heaviest)  gravitates  to 
the  lowest  part  of  the  system  to  reenter  the  heater  through 
the  return  pipes  indicated  in  Fig.  24  by  the  letter  R  and 
by  the  arrows  pointing  toward  the  heater. 

This  water  is  thus  in  more  or  less  constant  circulation 
when  the  heater  is  working.  A  little  evaporates  from  time 
to  time.  Very  clear  water  is  therefore  poured  in  every  few 
days  to  take  the  place  of  any  that  has  evaporated.  Freshly 
boiled  water  is  slightly  better  for  renewing  the  supply,  as  it 
has  less  oxygen  than  ordinary  aerated  water.  Hence  it  is 
less  likely  to  produce  rusting  of  the  iron  pipes.  The  water 
is  poured  (or  allowed  to  flow)  into  the  expansion  tank  D 
which  is  to  be  kept  more  than  half  full.  It  ought  to  hold 
at  least  five  per  cent,  of  the  volume  of  water  needed  to  fill 
the  entire  pipe  system.     The  top  is  partially  open. 

This  tank  must  be  above  the  level  of  the  highest  radiator 
of  the  system.  It  is  connected  to  the  pipes  by  a  smaller 
pipe  without  valves  or  other  obstruction  to  the  free  inflow 
and  outflow  of  expansion-water.  The  tank  allows  for  the 
expansion  and  contraction  of  the  water  in  the  pipes.  It 
also  serves  as  a  security  against  any  possible  steam  being 
pent  up  in  case  that  the  water  become  overheated.  These 
details  and  their  arrangement,  as  well  as  the  sizes  of  the 
pipes  used,  are  indicated  in  Fig.  24. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  largest  pipe  needed  for  an  ordinary  dwell- 
ing is  not  more  than  i^  to  2  inches  in  inside  diameter.     Wrought-iron 


l88  HEATING 

pipe,  nominally  called  "  inch-and-a-half  pipe,"  is  usually  somewhat 
larger  than  indicated.  Its  internal  area  is  a  little  more  than  two  square 
inches,  and  every  foot  of  it  weighs  less  than  2|  pounds.  For  every  two 
feet  of  such  pipe,  there  is  a  square  foot  of  outside  surface  exposed 
to  the  air.  From  this  surface,  heat  radiates  into  the  air.  If  made 
"extra  strong,"  the  inside  diameter  of  the  pipe  is  less.  For  the 
branch  to  each  radiator,  a  i}  inch  pipe  is  large  enough. 

In  summer  it  is  commonly  advised  that  the  water  be  left  in  the 
pipes  to  prevent  the  exposure  of  the  interior  to  the  air  and  consequent 
probability  of  rusting.      To  avert  danger  of  freezing,  all  water-pipe 
ought  to  be  emptied  if  the  house  in  which  they  are  set  is  to  be  left 
un  warmed  during  cold  winter  weather. 

A  stop-cock  at  the  lowest  part  of  the  system  (A^,  Fig.  24)  should  be 
present  in  order  to  let  off  all  of  the  water  whenever  necessary.  An 
overflow  pipe  from  above  the  expansion  tank  is  also  needed  to  obviate 
flooding  by  one  of  the  mischances  which  may  occur  with  such  systems. 
Radiators  used  for  a  hot-water  system  ought  to  be  from  one-and-a- 
half  to  two  times  as  large  as  when  steam  is  used.  This  is  because  the 
water  is  heated  to  a  temperature  usually  below  200°  F.  (and  ordinarily 
above  150°  F.),  while  steam  is  always  at  212°  F.,  or  higher.  Because 
of  the  outlay  for  piping,  it  costs  much  more  to  introduce  hot-water 
heating  than  any  other.  For  indirect  heating,  as  illustrated  by  Figs. 
22  and  23,  it  is  altogether  too  costly,  and  is  besides  less  suitable 
than  steam,  which  is  much  more  promptly  and  easily  controlled  and 
utilized. 

As  is  usual  with-  steam-heating,  so  with  hot  water,  each   radiator 

(A')  has  a  separate  set 
of  inflow  and  outflow 
pipes.  A  valve  to  shut 
off  the  hot  water  is  with 
each  radiator  as  shown 
at  the  letters  L  in  Fig. 

„  24.     Radiators  have  air- 

FiG.  25. 

valves  at  the  upper  part 

for  letting  ofif  any  air  that  may  be  present  and  which  would  stop  the 

circulation  of  water.     These   air- valves  {M,  Fig.  24)  should  turn  only 

with  a  key,  such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  25.     Otherwise  there   is  always 

great  danger  of  flooding  the  house  with  water. 

Hot- water  heaters  do  not  differ  much.     The  principal 
element  embodied    in   all  is   a  series  of  convoluted  tubes 


WARMING    BY    HOT    WATER  189 

more  or  less  modified.  Through  these  the  water  flows,  and 
around  these  the  heat  of  the  burning  fuel  plays  in  its  course 
to  the  chimney-flue. 

When  they  are  well  planned,  hot-water  heating  appara- 
tuses are  easily  managed,  and  also  usually  cost  less  to  run 
than  steam-heating  systems  or  hot-air  furnaces.  This  econ- 
omy in  working  is,  in  the  first  place,  due  to  the  fact  that 
a  certain  amount  of  heat-energy  has  to  be  expended  to 
convert  water  into  steam.  In  the  second  place,  all  heated 
bodies,  that  conduct  heat  from  one  place  to  another,  lose 
more  heat,  in  the  process  of  conveying,  when  they  are  very 
hot  (like  steam)  than  when  they  are  somewhat  cooler — like 
hot  water,  for  instance. 

In  an  average  room,  there  ought  to  be  allowed  from  30  to  33  square 
feet  of  (hot-water  heated)  direct-radiating  surface  for  every  1,000  cubic 
feet  of  air  that  the  room  contains.  It  should  be  stated  that  if  a  pipe  be 
(on  its  inside)  — 

1  inch  large,  3  feet  of  it  give  I  sq.  ft.  of  radiating  surface. 

li    "  "   .    2       "  ''  "         " 

2  "         "  20  inches         "       "       "  "  " 

Let  it  be  assumed  for  instance  that,  in  a  given  house  in  a  cold  region, 
a  reception-room  is  exposed  to  the  north  and  east.  It  is  14  by  20  feet 
square  and  lo  feet  and  9  inches  high.  Hence  its  cubic  contents  are 
somewhat  less  than  3,000  cubic  feet. 

By  reason  of  the  room  having  a  cold  situation  and  being  upon  the 
lower  floor,  the  allowance  of  radiator  surface  should  be  i  foot  for  every 
25  cubic  feet  of  room  space.  Therefore  120  feet  of  radiator  surface  are 
to  be  introduced  to  warm  the  room.  This  may  be  divided  between 
two  radiators  near  opposite  walls  ;  or  one  radiator  may  be  used  (near 
the  north  wall)  having  70  feet  of  surface,  while  the  remaining  50  feet 
may  be  laid  around  the  junction  of  the  wall  and  floor.  This  latter 
arrangement  adds  to  the  cost,  but  is  of  great  value  as  serving  to  heat 
the  walls.  It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  cold  and  damp  walls 
are  most  unhealthful.  In  some  very  modern  buildings  only  the  walls 
are  heated,  a  suitable  supply  of  slightly  warmed  air  being  introduced  in 
addition  for  the  purpose  of  ventilation. 

A  dining-room,  if  it  has  not  an  exposed  location  and  is  near  the 
kitchen,  or  if  its  floor  is  warmed  by  being  above  that  room,  needs  less 


igo 


HEATING 


heat.  So,  one  foot  of  radiating  surface  is  allowed  there  for  every  33 
cubic  feet  of  room  space.  For  this,  two  radiators  are  used,  having 
either  flat  or  round  pipes. 

In  the  middle  of  one  of  these  radiators,  there  may  be  enclosed  a 
polished  brass  (or  other  sheet-metal)  cabinet  for  warming  plates. 

For  bed-rooms,  i  foot  of  radiator  surface  is  sufficient  for  from  40  to 
50  cubic  feet  of  room  contents  unless  in  exceptional  cases  where  very 
warm  rooms  are  desired.  In  a  nursery,  the  radiator  should  have  i 
square  foot  of  surface  for  every  30  cubic  feet  of  room  space.  As  else- 
where, the  radiator  ought  to  be  on  the  coldest  side  of  the  wall.  It 
is  better  to  have  too  much  radiating  surface  than  too  little. 

Hot-water  systems  require  that  the  pipes  rise  vertically  or 
have  a  more  or  less  constant  slope.  Otherwise,  the  water 
does  not  circulate  freely.  Although  very  much  inferior  to 
steam-heat  for  heating  laterally  distant  parts  of  buildings, 
hot-water  systems  are  superior  to  furnace-heating  for  lower 
floors  and  exposed  cold  sides  of  houses. 

A  combination  of  a  hot-air  furnace,  which  insures  a 
renewal  of  the  air,  may  advantageously  be  made  with  a 
hot-water  heater  in  the  same  apparatus.  Or  the  two 
may  be  used  separately,  but  so  cooperating  that  hot-water- 
heated  radiators  can  be  employed  upon  the  lower  floors 
and  on  the  colder  sides  of  a  building.  In  mild  weather,  the 
hot-water  apparatus  alone  need  be  used. 

Hot-water  systems  suffice  to  heat  buildings  even  in  very 
cold  weather,  as  is  seen  from  the  extensive  use  of  these  in 
Canada.  There  the  abundant  movement  of  the  air  causes 
a  considerable  degree  of  natural  ventilation. 

Radiators  warmed  by  hot  water  can  be  used  for  "  direct- 
indirect  "  heating  such  as  is  represented  in  Fig.  21.  Abun- 
dant fresh  air  warmed  to  any  desired  temperature  can 
thereby  be  brought  into  a  room. 

To  summarize  and  repeat  somewhat,  it  may  be  stated 
that  hot-air  furnaces  of  the  best  quality  (properly  put 
up),  if  never  overheated  and  always  carefully  supplied 
with  fresh  air  from  a  pure  source,  give  the  best  results  in 


COMPARATIVE    MERITS  I9I 

heating  an  ordinary  house  and  at  the  same  time  ventilat- 
ing it. 

In  very  large  houses,  that  are  much  exposed  to  cold 
weather,  a  hot-water  system  as  an  auxiliary  is  excellent  for 
supplying  equable,  extra  warmth  by  means  of  radiators  used 
on  the  lower  floor  and  on  the  bleakest  side  of  the  house. 

For  warming  larger  buildings  such  as,  for  instance, 
school-houses,  a  good  furnace  arrangement  can  be  both 
economical  and  very  satisfactory.  This  is  notably  the  case 
with  medium-sized  buildings.  For  the  largest  structures, 
and  especially  when  they  are  not  compact,  steam-heating  by 
the  indirect  systetn  (see  Fig.  2Z)  is  the  most  satisfactory. 
It  is  usually  more  expensive  than  the  hot-air  furnace. 

Exhaust  flues  for  ventilating,  that  is,  for  drawing  out 
the  bad  air,  are  a  very  desirable  addition  to  all  buildings. 
With  heating,  ventilation  should  be  combined.  The  subject 
is  treated  further  in  the  next  chapter. 

As  regards  the  comparative  cost  of  steam  and  hot  water 
for  warming,  it  may  be  said  that  steam  usually  costs  more 
to  operate.  Some  recent  careful  observations  made  at  the 
Cornell  Agricultural  Station  (Bulletin  41,  August,  1892) 
showed  that  where  there  were  many  bends  in  the  pipes  and 
long  levels,  steam  was  considerably  cheaper  than  water, 
regardless  of  the  styles  of  heaters.  Others  have  reached 
similar  conclusions.  In  Massachusetts  and  elsewhere,  how- 
ever, hot-water  heating  has  been  found  to  be  cheaper  than 
the  use  of  steam,  when  once  the  pipes  and  radiators  were 
set.  This  is  in  conformity  with  what  general  theoretical 
conclusions  allow  one  to  suppose.  To  determine  which  is 
the  better  method  for  heating,  one  must  carefully  consider 
the  situation,  as  hot  water  can  be  a  more  costly  means  of 
heating  than  steam. 

Under  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  hot-water  heat- 
ing, it  appears  slightly  less  expensive  than  heating  by  hot 
air  or  steam  when  once  the  very  costly  piping  is  introduced. 


192 


HEATING 


The  ingenious  contrivances  for  regulating  the  heat 
supplied  to  all  parts  of  a  building  by  utilizing  the  automatic 
action  of  a  thermostat  or  of  various  electric  devices  are  not 
wholly  reliable.  The  lowest  priced  of  the  good  ones  cost 
about  forty  dollars  each.  Such  things  are  liable  to  get  out 
of  order  and  are  of  rather  limited  utility  in  their  present 
imperfect  condition. 

Summer   Heat,  and   Means   for   Lessening  its 
Unhealthful  Effects 

The  persistent,  extreme  heat  of  most  of  our  summers 
causes  oppression,  lassitude,  and  diarrhoeal  and  other 
diseases.  Accordingly,  any  physical  or  other  means  that 
afford  relief  from  these  and  other  effects  of  prolonged  sum- 
mer heat  must  be  declared  a  great  boon  to  humanity.  We 
suffer  especially  from  the  moist  heat  at  times  of  prolonged 
*'  heated  terms  "  of  weather,  because,  with  our  habits  of 
overeating  and  exercising  more  than  is  approved  by  the 
natives  of  tropical  climates,  our  bodies  then  produce  more 
heat  than  they  can  easily  lose  by  radiation  or  by  the  evapo- 
ration of  moisture.  The  prevalent  diarrhoeal  diseases  of 
summer  are  due  to  the  fact  that,  unless  great  care  is  taken, 
bacteria  and  their  more  or  less  poisonous  products  increase 
in  and  on  our  various  articles  of  food  under  the  influence 
of  the  prevalent  warmth. 

The  evaporation  of  water  (as  from  water  spray  or 
fountains,  wet  cloths  or  other  surfaces)  cools  the  air,  yet 
not  notably  so  when  the  air  is  already  very  moist  and  the 
heat  therefore  most  oppressive.  The  melting  of  large 
quantities  of  ice,  the  use  of  the  improved  anhydrous 
ammonia  apparatus,  and  other  devices  for  making  ice 
and  for  cooling  air,  as  also  the  employment  of  compressed 
air  which,  by  its  expansion,  produces  cold,  are  all  em- 
ployed. Yet  they  are  not  practicable  except  in  a  very 
limited  way. 


RELIEF    AGAINST    SUMMER    HEAT  I93 

The  immense  majority  of  the  population  cannot  com- 
mand such  aids  toward  resisting  the  great  heat  of  our  sum- 
mers. Hence  recourse  must  be  had  to  extreme  moderation 
in  diet  and  exercise.  Work  should  be  suspended  during 
the  midday  hours  in  hot  months,  and  usages,  clothing 
and  abodes  must  be  as  well  adapted  to  the  weather  as  is 
possible. 

The  walls  of  an  ordinary  house  receive  and  retain  an 
immense  amount  of  heat  from  the  sun.  This  heat  they  radi- 
ate off  into  the  rooms  to  a  very  uncomfortable  extent  in 
summer  days,  unless  the  process  be  restricted  by  great  thick- 
ness of  the  walls,  by  their  excellent  non-conductivity,  or  by 
an  interposed  layer  of  air  between  the  inner  and  outer  por- 
tions of  double  walls.  This  latter  arrangement,  if  properly 
constructed,  allows  an  upward  current  within  the  wall. 
Much  heat  thereby  rises  and  is  carried  away  instead  of  be- 
ing radiated  into  the  adjoining  rooms. 

Upper  stories  in  any  building  are  more  uncomfortable 
in  summer  than  are  the  lower  ones.  This  is  owing  to  the 
heating  effects  of  the  sun  ;  for  the  roof,  even  if  having  two 
or  more  non-conducting  layers  besides  being  well  ventilated, 
allows  much  heat  to  enter.  Besides  this,  the  air  of  the 
lower  rooms,  when  it  becomes  warmed  above  the  average 
temperature  of  the  house,  rises  to  the  upper  story. 

Foliage  and  creeping  vines,  screens,  awnings  and  the  use 
of  white  or  light  colors  (as  absorbing  less  heat  than  darker 
shades)  for  roofs  and  the  outside  of  houses,  ward  off  the 
heat  effects  somewhat.  A  careful  choice  of  a  location  and 
a  proper  construction  of  buildings  prove  always  of  much 
value.  To  the  laboring  poor  of  cities,  however,  these  aids 
are  not  usually  available.  They  are  better  off  in  summer  if 
they  then  begin  work  very  early,  take  a  long  rest  at  noon 
and  resume  work  later  in  the  day. 


13 


VENTILATION 

All  people,  especially  when  using  the  muscles,  excrete  a 
considerable  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  This  is  given 
off  almost  entirely  from  the  lungs.  The  hourly  amount  may 
be  estimated  at  not  far  from  1,350  cubic  inches,  or  say  three- 
fourths  of  a  cubic  foot.  Children  of  course  produce  less  of 
this  than  adults.  The  amount  given  off  during  sleep  is 
much  less  than  when  one  is  at  work.  We  may  consider  air 
to  be  pure  when,  in  10,000  parts,  it  has  no  more  than  from 
3  to  4  parts  of  carbonic  acid  gas.     (See  page  13.) 

An  adult  requires  1,200  cubic  feet  of  such  pure  air 
every  hour  for  breathing,  in  order  to  supply  the  system 
with  oxygen  so  that  it  is  enabled  to  excrete  the  above- 
specified  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  exhaled  breath. 
If  less  than  this  volume  of  fresh  air  be  allowed  for  each 
person,  the  health  and  efficiency  suffer  in  the  end.  Prac- 
tically, it  is  found  better  to  allow  more  than  this  for  each 
individual,  as  will  shortly  be  indicated. 

From  the  bodies  of  animals,  various  other  gaseous  products 
are  exhaled.  They  do  not  appear  to  have  any  considerable 
hygienic  significance.  (See  page  16.)  They  are  very  dif- 
ferent from  bacteria  and  dirt  in  the  air,  which  can  be  very 
harmful.  Certain  irregular  and  unusual  gaseous  and  other 
contaminations  can  be  present.  Accordingly,  the  air  of 
rooms  used  for  some  industries  needs  to  be  tested  especially 
for  the  chemical  or  other  poison  which  is  particularly  liable 
to  be  in  such  air.  In  localities  where  coal  that  contains 
much  sulphur  is  burned,  sulphurous  acid  (which  further 
becomes  sulphuric  acid)  is  present  at  times  to  an  unhealth- 
ful  extent.     Our  coals  vary  greatly  in  respect  to  the  amount 


IMPURE    AIR  195 

of  sulphur  that  they  contain.  In  England,  sulphur  gas  has 
become  a  serious  contamination  of  the  air.  In  Manchester 
and  London,  the  amount  of  sulphurous  acid  detectable  in 
the  atmosphere  during  foggy  weather  in  the  worst  districts, 
has  been  reported  to  be  increased  at  times  to  thirty-four  and 
fifty  times  the  ordinary  amount  found  in  the  air  of  those 
cities. 

Besides  giving  off  gaseous  excreta,  people  who  enter  a 
room  may  bring  there  the  microorganisms  of  disease  or  of 
organic  decomposition.  Such  causes  of  disease  are  liable 
to  be  present  in  unclean  and  unventilated  rooms.  Hence 
the  further  necessity  of  purifying  the  air  by  laying  the  dust 
and  cleaning  it  out  by  moist  cleansing.  If  fresh,  pure  air 
be  introduced  into  a  room  containing  much  bad  air  or 
unclean  dust  or  both  of  these  together,  much  of  the  dust  is 
thereby  removed  from  the  room,  and  the  impure  air  is 
replaced,  in  part  at  least,  by  more  healthful  air. 

Carbonic  acid  gas  is  properly  taken  as  a  guide  to  the 
degree  of  impurity  of  the  air  ;  for  it  is  certain  to  be  quite 
accurately  recognized  by  a  careful  test  (see  page  14)  in 
whatever  amount  it  be  present.  Furthermore,  it  is  the  most 
constant  and  inevitable  contamination  given  off  wherever 
human  beings  or  animals  are  present.  All  combustion 
produces  it,  and,  as  explained  on  page  136,  this  gas  comes 
in  great  quantities  from  all  means  of  artificial  illumination 
other  than  the  electric  light. 

Other  means  than  chemical  tests  for  determining  the  degree  of 
impurity  of  the  air  are  less  exact.  The  sense  of  smell  reveals  organic 
exhalations,  especially  when  the  air  is  moist.  It  aids  to  the  recognition 
of  certain  gases,  yet  does  not  detect  the  most  poisonous  ones.  Our 
senses  are  too  vague  in  their  interpretations  to  afford  a  reliable  means 
of  detecting  air-impurity  unless  occasionally  to  exceptionally  endowed 
persons  or  in  very  marked  instances. 

Microscopic  examination  of  the  air  by  studying  an  exposed  glass 
slide,  having  upon  it  a  drop  of  glycerine,  reveals  much  ;  but  this  gives 
very  slight  aid  to  hygiene.      More  may  be  said  for  the  various  methods 


196  VENTILATION 

of  bacteriological  examination  of  air.  Yet,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
the  chemical  test  for  carbonic  acid  gas  is  the  best  single  standard  to  use 
for  judging  air-impurity. 

The  Wolpert  test  (see  page  15)  is  rapid  and  quite  useful  ;  yet  it 
usually  reveals  less  carbonic  acid  gas  than  is  actually  present,  and  the 
extent  of  this  discrepancy  may  be  equivalent  to  the  full  amount  of  the 
gas  in  question  that  is  present  in  ordinary  air.  This  is,  then,  a  good 
means  to  use  where  the  air  is  grossly  contaminated  with  that  gas,  as  is 
common  in  some  churches,  badly  ventilated  ofifices  and  public  buildings. 
For  greater  accuracy,  a  chemical  test  is  indispensable. 

It  has  above  been  indicated  that  1,200  cubic  feet  of  pure 
air  (that  does  not  contain  more  than  4  parts  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  in  10,000  parts  of  air)  ought  to  be  supplied  every 
hour  for  each  person  in  a  room.  Our  ordinary  city  atmos- 
phere is  very  apt  to  prove  rather  more  contaminated  than 
this  if  samples  (for  testing)  be  taken  at  random  from  crowded 
neighborhoods  in  manufacturing  districts.  Furthermore, 
pure  air  introduced  into  a  room  may  not  become  evenly 
diffused  and  may  fail  to  be  so  distributed  throughout  the 
room  as  to  drive  out  or  dilute  all  of  the  impure  air. 

For  school-rooms,  therefore,  the  lowest  standard 
amount  of  fresh  air  to  be  supplied  every  hour  for  each 
pupil  is  set  at  1,800  cubic  feet.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  30 
cubic  feet  per  minute.  Some  schools  receive  twice  this 
amount  of  fresh  air  for  each  scholar,  and  numbers  of 
schools  have  45  cubic  feet  a  minute  allowed  for  every  child 
that  the  room  can  accommodate.  Unfortunately,  very 
many  schools  are  exceedingly  deficient  in  this  respect. 
When  the  pupils  are  not  children,  45  cubic  feet  per  minute 
ought  to  be  the  lowest  amount  supplied  for  each  individual. 

For  court-rooms  and  other  assembly  rooms,  especially 
if  they  are  to  be  occupied  continuously  for  several  successive 
hours,  no  smaller  allowance  of  fresh  air  should  be  made 
than  3,600  feet  an  hour,  or  60  cubic  feet  per  minute,  for 
every  person  of  the  largest  number  present  at  one  time. 
Somewhat  more  than    this   amount   of   air  is  required  to 


FRESH    AIR    AND    ROOM    SPACE  197 

replace  that  contaminated  by  every  average-sized  gas- 
burner  (or  lamp)  that  does  not  have  a  proper  flue  arrange- 
ment (see  page  135)  for  carrying  off  the  waste  products  of 
its  combustion. 

For  every  cubic  foot  of  illuminating  gas  that  an  ordinary 
gas-burner  consumes  in  an  hour,  we  should  provide  at  least 
800  cubic  feet  of  fresh-air  inflow.  Hence  every  five-foot 
gas-burner  (as  well  as  each  lamp  that  gives  nearly  as  much 
light)  ought  to  have  supplied  for  it  while  it  is  being  used 
for  lighting,  no  less  than  4,000  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per 
hour.  Some  observers  consider  that  this  allowance  is  not 
large  enough.  The  more  fresh  air  a  room  receives  and  the 
more  completely  all  contaminated  air  is  drawn  off  by  suita- 
ble means,  the  more  healthful  is  such  a  room. 

Mechanical  means  of  ventilation,  in  our  most  hygieni- 
cally  constructed  buildings,  cause  the  air  to  be  completely 
changed  every  seven  minutes  and  at  times  even  more  rapidly 
than  that.  This  mechanical  ventilation  ought  to  be  so  well 
arranged  that  no  uncomfortable  currents  of  air  are  experi- 
enced. In  our  ordinary  rooms,  however,  where  no  provision 
for  ventilation  exists  other  than  such  natural  means  as  doors 
and  windows,  draughts  are  felt  if  the  air  be  changed  more 
often  than  two  or  three  times  in  an  hour. 

Accordingly,  the  smallest  permissible  room  space  to  be 
allotted  to  an  adult,  in  an  average  room  where  no  good 
special  facilities  for  ventilation  exist,  should  be  set  at  no 
less  than  half  the  1,200  cubic  feet  of  pure  air  needed  every 
hour  ;  that  is,  every  adult  needs  at  least  600  cubic  feet  of 
room  space.  The  smallest  school-room  space  provided  for 
each  child  ought  to  equal  or  exceed  250  cubic  feet,  even  if 
there  be  adequate  ventilation.  If  less  than  this  be  allowed, 
the  final  result  is  almost  certain  to  be  deteriorated  general 
health  or  lessened  capacity  of  the  system  to  resist  infectious 
disease. 

In  all  closed  rooms,  each  individual  requires  at  least  1,000 


198  VENTILATION 

cubic  feet  of  space,  exclusiv^e  of  that  taken  up  by  furniture. 
More  than  this  is  desirable,  and  in  wholly  closed  sleeping- 
rooms  more  than  1,000  cubic  feet  ought  to  be  allowed  for 
children  and  adults  alike.  If,  in  case  of  infectious  disease, 
more  than  this  cannot  be  had  indoors,  the  patient  will  gener- 
ally do  best  when  treated  in  large  airy  tents  which  allow 
very  much  more  fresh  air.  For  workshops  where,  as  is  usu- 
ally the  case,  even  less  than  1,000  cubic  feet  are  allowed  for 
each  person,  electric  lighting  is  very  desirable  as  causing  no 
contamination  of  the  air.  If  gas  be  used  and  no  suitable 
means  exist  for  carrying  off  the  products  of  its  combustion, 
the  air  is  thereby  rendered  very  unfit  for  breathing. 

Open  windows  and  doors  ordinarily  insure  an  ex- 
change of  air  between  a  room  and  the  atmosphere  outside. 
Where  there  is  absolutely  no  breeze  and  when,  as  in  the 
closest  days  of  our  summers,  the  temperature  is  the  same 
inside  a  building  as  it  is  without,  the  unaided  natural  process 
of  diffusion  and  purification  of  the  bad  air  is  at  best  a  slow 
one. 

In  winter,  much  air  gets  in  through  crevices  and  openings. 
Through  walls,  some  air  enters,  especially  where  the  build- 
ing material  is  very  porous  and  when  also  no  very  imper- 
vious layer  exists  in  or  upon  its  substance.  These  natural 
means  are  the  only  ones  used  in  most  buildings.  They  may, 
however,  be  quite  inadequate  as  a  rule  ;  for  they  depend 
upon  the  weather,  which  is  a  very  uncertain  thing.  Further- 
more, the  air  which  enters  through  a  window  or  a  door  may 
be  very  impure  or  may  blow  unpleasantly  upon  people. 

Artificial  ventilation  is  an  invaluable  means  of  increasing 
the  fresh-air  supply  in  crowded  rooms  and  removing  vitiated 
air.  By  the  use  of  intelligently  adjusted  contrivances,  the 
air  of  a  large  and  crowded  room  may  in  any  weather  be  so 
purified  by  frequent  and  yet  healthful  renewals  that  the  ac- 
commodations of  that  room  are  thereby  practically  several 
times  increased.     Whatever  means  be  employed  to  renew 


CHIMNEYS    FOR    EXHAUST    VENTILATION 


199 


and  purify  the  air  of  a  room,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  see 
that  ?io  draughts  of  air  stream  directly  upon  people. 

Artificial  ventilation  methods  may  either  be  directed 
to  the  removal  of  vitiated  air  from  a  room  or  building,  by 
mechanical  means  or  by  heated  flues  ;  or  fresh  air  may  be 
driven  in  to  displace  the  used-up  air  which  is  already  in  the 
room.  Another,  and  usually  the  best  way  of  all,  is  to  com- 
bine the  two  preceding  methods.  This  com- 
bined method  may  have  the  air  driven  in 
by  mechanical  means  (such  as  blowers  or 
fans),  or  the  tendency  of  air  to  rise  when 
heated  (as  by  steam  coils  or  hot-air  fur- 
naces) may  be  found  sufficient  to  send  in 
abundant  fresh  air  from  a  pure  source. 

A  very  satisfactory  way  of  drawing  out 
the  used  air  from  the  rooms  is  to  introduce 
into  the  centre  of  a  building,,  such  as  for 
instance  a  school-house,  one  or  more  large 
ventilating  chimneys.  (See  Fig.  26.)  Each 
of  these  has  a  special  stove  fire  in  the  lower 
part  which  by  its  heat  causes  the  air  to  rise 
within.  Each  is  also  arranged  so  that  no 
air  enters  excepting  such  bad  air  as  is  drawn 
into  it  through  flue-openings  in  the  lower 
parts  of  the  rooms  which  it  is  to  ventilate. 

In  winter,  the  heat  is  in  some  cases  introduced  into  such 
ventilating  chimneys  by  carrying  the  smoke-flues  from  room- 
warming  stoves  or  furnaces  up  through  these  chimneys.  Yet 
the  gain  therefrom  is  not  so  great  as  it  may  at  first  appear  ; 
for  a  considerable  portion  of  the  chimney-flue  is  taken  up  by 
the  introduced  smoke-pipe,  and  the  friction  (obstructing  the 
upward  flow  of  air)  is  thereby  greatly  increased.  The  effi- 
ciency of  the  chimney  is  of  course  lessened  by  whatever  is 
put  in  it.  When  the  weather  is  warm  and  no  heat  is  needed 
for  the  rooms,  only  the   special  chimney  stove  is  used.     At 


Fig.  26. 


200  VENTILATION 

such  times,  any  smoke-pipes  that  may  be  present  are  purely 
obstructions. 

A  ventilating  chimney  that  is  square  is  cheaper  to 
build  and  also  causes  less  loss  from  friction  than  one  of  the 
same  cross-sectional  area  that  is  oblong.  The  higher  a 
chimney  is  made  and  the  hotter  it  is  kept  inside,  the  better 
does  it  draw  air  out  of  the  flues. 

A  ventilating  chimney  4J  feet  square  has -a  cross-sectional 
area  of  20J  square  feet.     Allowing  for  considerable  loss  by 


Fig.  27. 

friction  of  the  rising  warm  air  upon  the  walls  of  the 
chimney,  the  upward  movement  of  this  air  when  properly 
heated  may  fairly  be  expected  to  be  about  720  feet  in  a 
minute.  That  is,  an  anemometer  or  wind  gauge  (see  Fig. 
27),  when  held  for  the  same  definite 'time  in  several  parts 
of  the  upward  current  of  the  chimney,  ought  to  indicate  an 
average  movement  of  12  feet  per  second.  This  would  be  a 
movement  of  14,580  cubic  feet  every  minute.  If  the  venti- 
lating openings  in  the  rooms  offered  no  frictional  resistance 
to  the  outflow  of  air,  this  volume  of  air  movement  up  the 


CHIMNEYS    FOR    EXHAUST    VENTILATION  20I 

chimney  of  a  given  school-house  would  be  equivalent  to 
between  29  and  30  cubic  feet  of  air  removed  for  each  one 
of  500  pupils.  In  practice,  it  is  well  always  to  allow  for 
considerable  friction  whenever  outlets  or  bends  come  in  the 
way  of  a  current  of  air. 

Drawing  the  air  down  out  of  a  room  as  indicated  in  the 
descending  flues  entering  from  the  lower  rooms,  into  the 
ventilating  chimney  as  shown  on  the  right-hand  side  of 
Fig.  26,  may  give  a  slight  saving  of  heat  in  cold  weather. 
By  going  in  a  roundabout  way  into  the  chimney,  this  air 
warms  somewhat  any  colder  parts  of  the  building  with  which 
it  comes  in  contact.  In  some  of  the  variations  of  the  above 
given,  very  widely  used  method,  this  principle,  of  economiz- 
ing the  warmth,  is  carried  out  in  too  thrifty  a  manner. 
The  results  may  be  very  unsatisfactory,  and  the  ventilating 
flues  can  harbor  and  spread  disease  if  these  flues  are  intro- 
duced between  floors  or  in  any  place  where  they  cannot 
readily  be  cleaned  out.  It  is  also  very  undesirable  that  they 
be  connected  in  any  way  with  "  dry-closet "  systems  as  in- 
dicated in  other  parts  of  this  book. 

The  cost  of  this  hot-air  shaft  system  of  ventilating 
buildings  is  practically  less  than  that  of  mechanical  ventila- 
tion (by  means  of  fans  and  blowers),  especially  where  the 
large  space  required  for  the  chirtmey  is  of  no  consequence. 
Because  of  its  cheapness  and  generally  satisfactory  working, 
it  is  used  in  some  of  the  most  recent  large  school-houses, 
even  when  they  are  heated  by  the  indirect  steam-heat 
method  that  is  shown  in  Fig.  23.  A  common  size  for  such 
ventilating  chimney-flues  in  school-houses  is  three  by  six 
feet.  The  flue  for  ventilating  toilet  closets  is  usually  made 
somewhat  smaller  than  this.  To  heat  such  a  flue  properly, 
at  least  one  ton  of  coal  per  month  should  be  allowed, 
although  some  tradesmen  claim  to  have  stoves  that  produce 
sufficient  upward  draught  with  less  than  half  this  amount  of 
coal. 


ij^S> 


202  VENTILATION 

Heat,  therefore,  when  properly  managed  so  as  to  draw- 
air  out,  causes  an  efficient  ventilation  of  our  buildings  and 
rooms.  Even  in  its  ordinary  activity  the  principle  is  oper- 
ative in  ventilating  buildings.  Whenever  an  opening  exists 
at  the  upper  part  of  a  house,  for  instance,  the  warm  air, 

^^^^„^^^^  rising  within  the  house,  tends  to  flow  out 
'^f::-?;:v;;;-\^^^^         through  the  Opening.     Thus  a  natural  venti- 

V  A fi        lation  is  secured  since  air  flows  in  to  replace 

'h:.-}i:::::j:A  that  which  rises.  Cowls  or  caps  (see  Fig.  28) 
of  round,  angular  and  various  other  shapes 
are  used  to  protect  openings  at  the  top  of 
flues.  While  the)''  keep  rain  and  various  large 
Fig.  28.  objects   out,  they  do  not  improve   the  ven- 

tilation. They  rather  obstruct  the  outward  movement  of 
the  currents  of  air.  Ventilating  chimneys  and  pipes  ought 
therefore  to  be  as  open  as  possible  at  the  top. 

The  simplest  way  of  drawing  air  out  of  ordinary  living- 
rooms  in  order  to  ventilate  them  by  the  inflow  of  fresh  air 
(replacing  that  which  is  drawn  out),  is  to  have  a  fire  in  a 
flue  leading  upward  and  outward.  An  open-grate  fire,  as 
already  explained,  is  very  valuable  in  this  respect.  We  find 
it  equally  efficacious  and  more  convenient  (although  less 
pleasing  to  the  eye)  to  have  gas  or  other  flames  burning  in  a 
suitably  arranged  flue.  The  proper  location  of  such  ven- 
tilating flues  is  explained  on  page  208.  Having  a  flue  or  flues 
of  sufficient  size,  and  using  heat  enough,  we  can  in  this  way 
draw  the  bad  air  out  of  any  room. 

This  common,  easy  and  effective  method  is  known  as 
exhaust  ventilation  or  aspiratiofi.  When  working  well  in  a 
tightly  closed  apartment  into  which  no  air  is  driven,  it  tends 
to  create  a  slightly  lessened  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  in  the 
room  from  which  air  is  drawn  out.  This  indicates  the  chief 
objection  that  can  be  made  against  the  exclusive  use  of  this 
method,  whether  hot-air,  air-driving  fans,  jets  of  spray, 
steam  or  other  means  be  used  with  a  flue  to  dratu  air  out  of 


MEANS    FOR    SUPPLYING    FRESH    AIR 


203 


a  room.  It  is  obvious  that  the  ordinary  air,  which  flows 
into  rooms  to  replace  that  which  is  thus  drawn  out,  may  be 
unclean  and  impure  at  times,  coming — as  it  does,  when  no 
especial  precautions  are  taken — from  the  nearest  source. 
If  the  neighboring  corridor  or  room  be  loaded  with  unclean 
dust,  that  is  liable  to  be  drawn  in  with  the  same  readiness 
as  the  purest  air  from  outside.  So,  when  air  drawn  in  pro- 
miscuously will  probably  be  impure,  it  is  especially  impor- 
tant to  select  the  supply  from  the  purest  possible  part  of  the 
neighboring  air.  This  then  is  driven  into  the  rooms  either 
as  the  hot-air  current  of  a  furnace,  or  mechanical  means  are 
used  to  propel  currents  of  air  into  the  interiors  and  thus  in- 
sure their  ventilation. 

Mechanical  means  of  purifying  the  air  of  rooms,  by 
driving  quantities  of  fresh 
air  into  them,  furnish  a 
very  reliable  and  constant 
supply  ;  but  at  the  same 
time   the   cost   of  running 


them  usually  proves  greater 
than  the  estimates  made 
beforehand.  The  most 
common  device  is  a  fan 
of  some  sort  (see  Fig.  29) 
that  drives  air  through  a 
tube  in  which  or  in  front  of 
which  the  inclined  planes 
of    the    fan    are    rotating.  ^^'  ^^' 

For  forcing  large  volumes  of  air  rapidly  through  compara- 
tively small  tubes,  blowers  are  used,  of  the  Sturtevant  pat- 
tern (as  indicated  on  a  very  small  scale  at  the  right-hand 
lower  corner  of  Fig.  30).  These  blowers  take  air  in  at  the 
side  and  force  it  out  centrifugally  by  the  rotating  (within 
a  drum)  of  flat  sheets  of  steel  arranged  and  moving  very 
much  like  paddle-wheels  on  side-wheel  steamboats.     There- 


204  VENTILATION 

by  the  air  can  be  driven,  with  great  force,  through  a  venti- 
lating flue.  The  propelled  air  is  then  always  under  at  least 
a  slight  pressure. 

It  is  hygienically  best  to  have  the  conducting  flues  and  the 
blowing  machines  larger  than  estimated  necessary  for  the 
work.  In  all  cases,  the  current  on  entering  a  room  ought  to 
be  no  stronger  than  six  feet  per  second.  If  stronger  than 
this  (and  at  any  rate  if  exceeding  ten  feet  per  second)  undesir- 
able draughts  are  experienced.  In  the  interests  of  economy, 
also,  it  is  found  best  to  have  a  fan  or  blower  considerably 
larger  than  appears  fitted  to  supply  the  minimum  amount  of 
fresh  air  required.  By  making  the  flues  and  all  mechanical 
parts  so  ample  that  abundant  fresh  air  is  secured  while  run- 
ning such  appliances  at  a  moderate  speed,  better  results  are 
got  than  when  they  have  to  be  worked  at  or  near  their 
utmost  limit. 

Using  such  powerful  means  to  drive  fresh  air  into  all  parts 
of  a  building,  there  is  a  distinct  gain  in  that  the  pure  supply 
can  be  drawn  from  such  a  height  above  the  ground  as  we 
choose  to  take  it.  With  simple  hot-air  furnaces,  it  is  not  as 
a  rule  feasible  to  take  in  this  out-of-doors  air  from  a  point 
much  more  than  five  feet  above  the  ground.  Otherwise, 
backward  currents  may  result.  Thirty  feet  above  ground  is, 
generally  speaking,  a  suitable  level  for  the  fresh-air  intake. 
At  that  height,  the  outer  opening  of  the  downward-drawing 
tube,  commonly  used  for  the  purpose,  is  below  the  tops  of 
house-drainage  "  risers "  and  smoke-chimneys  in  cities, 
while  considerably  above  the  level  of  the  worst  (coarse) 
street  dust.  Every  situation  needs,  however,  to  be  judged 
by  its  own  peculiar  conditions.  The  longer  and  smaller 
the  inflow  pipe,  the  greater  its  frictional  resistance  to  the 
drawing  in  of  air  and  hence  the  greater  the  cost.  If  the 
desirable  introduction  of  an  efficient  air-strainer  is  added, 
this  increases  the  resistance,  and  consequently  the  cost  of 
running.     Wherever  possible,   the  fresh-air   inlet  must  be 


MECHANICAL    METHODS 


205 


far   away   from  foul-air  outlets  and   chimneys.     (See  Fig. 

30-) 

For  filtering  air  perfectly,  the  very  finest  tissues  are 
needed.  Fine  cotton-wool  is  excellent  for  this  purpose  and 
can,  for  a  time,  hold  back  bacteria  better  than  any  sheeting, 
muslin  or  gauze.  It  is  well  that  as  large  a  surface  of  the 
filtering  substance  as  possible  be  exposed  to  the  air.  It 
must  often  be  renewed  ;  otherwise,  the  abundant  dust  of 
the  atmosphere  speedily  clogs  up  such  tissues  and  offers  a 
formidable  resistance  to  the  passage  of  air.  As  moisture  is 
the  most  effectual  practical  means  of  arresting  dust  and 
bacteria,  sprays  and  moistened  surfaces  have  often  been  used 
for  this  purpose.  An  interesting  account  of  a  seemingly  very 
successful  adaptation  of  all  these  principles  by  Mr.  Key  for 
the  Victoria  Hospital  in  Glasgow  can  be  found  in  Engineering 
for  August  28,  1 891.  This  is  mentioned  because  it  appears 
to  be  much  less  costly  in  its  practical  operation  than  similar 
ones  in  our  country  prove  to  be. 

When  air  is  thus  drawn  in,  the  mechanical  means  for 
driving  it  along  should  be  as  near  the  inflow  pipe  as  the 
satisfactory  disposition  of  the  apparatus  permits.  Thus  if, 
as  is  usual,  the  blower  works  also  to  drive  the  air  through 
steam-coils  for  the  purpose  of  warming  it,  the  heating  and 
mixing  arrangements  (shown  in  Fig.  23)  ought  to  be  so  placed 
that  the  blower  or  fan  drives  air  upon  them  and  does  not 
draw  air  from  the  coils.  Fig.  30  shows  the  proper  relative 
position  of  the  different  parts.  In  the  former  way,  it  is 
always  very  easy  to  mix  in  colder  air  with  the  warm  air  by 
merely  regulating  the  position  of  the  "  sliding  damper  "  or 
any  of  the  similar  appliances  which  ingenuity  adapts  as  best 
for  a  given  situation. 

This  mechanical  method  of  ventilating  buildings  is  more 
expensive  to  run  than  the  warm-air  ventilating-shaft  system 
spoken  of  on  page  199.  The  permanency  and  general  relia- 
bility of  the  latter  plan  commend  it  where  it  is  practicable. 


2o6 


VENTILATION 


Furthermore,  it  does  not  require  so  great  intelligence  on  the 
part  of  the  care-taker  of  the  building  as  is  needed  for  the 
machinery  of  most  of  the  mechanical  systems,  which  are 
necessarily  more  complicated  and  hence  liable  to  get  out 
of  order.  Some  agents  of  fans  and  blowers  claim  that  their 
apparatus  will  supply,  to  a  ten-room  school-house,  20,000 
cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  at  an  hourly  cost  of  five  cents  or 
less.     Practically  they  do   not  effect  this.     Trial  is  apt  to 


•^r*! 


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th-'' 


li  I   1 1 1  I  I  I  3ZEX 


X3IL 


•1? 


(The  air  enters  at  the  top  of  the  rooms,  as  explained  on  page  208.) 
Fig.  30. 

show  that  the  cost  is  several  times  greater.  The  highest 
amount  of  air  that  can  be  got  under  favorable  circum- 
stances, may  be  set  at  10,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute 
for  each  "horsepower."  One  horsepower  as  used  for  such 
devices  should  not  be  figured  at  less  than  nine  or  ten  cents 
per  hour.  In  practical  working,  the  best  makes  of  blowers 
need  about  four  horsepower  to  supply  an  inflow  of  air  slightly 
larger  than  is  taken  out  by  a  ventilating  chimney  such  as  is 
specified  on  page  200. 


MEASURING    FRESH-AIR    INFLOW  207 

Electric  motors,  even  if  larger  than  needed,  are  not  so 
satisfactory  in  most  cases  as  vacuum  engines  or  such  steam 
engines  as  are  commonly  used  for  running  these  blower  fans. 
Water  motors,  wherever  available  and  economical  in  use, 
have  the  great  further  recommendation  that,  after  being 
used  for  power  and  for  steam,  the  water  from  these  can  be 
utilized  to  flush  water-closets  and  thereby  maintain  the  best 
hygienic  condition  of  the  building.  Some  superintendents 
of  water-works  are,  however,  apt  to  regard  hydraulic  motors 
with  disfavor  and  hence  manage  to  put  practical  obstacles 
in  their  way. 

The  amount  of  fresh  air  that  comes  in  through  ventilat- 
ing flues  is  satisfactorily  measured  by  means  of  delicate 
anemometers.  (See  Fig.  27.)  An  instrument  of  this  sort  is  to 
be  held  at  each  test  and  at  each  of  the  separate  trials  in  the 
test  always  for  the  same  given  time  in  various  parts  of  the 
current  of  air.  If  then  the  several  readings  of  a  given  test 
be  averaged,  very  reliable  results  are  secured  by  a  person 
who  is  at  all  familiar  with  the  use  of  this  delicate  recorder. 
Multiplying  the  average  velocity  of  the  current  by  the  size 
of  the  flue  through  which  it  passes,  the  amount  of  inflowing 
air  can  be  accurately  estimated.  Very  delicate  vanes  can  be 
made  by  carefully  weighting  toy-balloons  or  by  fixing 
feathers,  mica  sheets,  etc.,  to  a  wire  or  needle  balanced  on 
metal  or  glass.  Thus,  the  least  movement  of  air  may  be 
revealed.  Down,  the  smoke  of  burning  "joss-sticks,"  smoke 
of  powder  or  of  pungent  substances  and  similar  visible  light 
particles  aid  the  recognition  of  air  movement. 

Studying  the  movement  of  such  indicators  in  rooms 
under  various  conditions,  we  are  enabled  to  form  an  idea  of 
the  most  effective  and  at  the  same  time  most  economical 
location  for  placing  the  openings  through  which  fresh  air  is 
to  flow  in  and  contaminated  air  is  to  flow  out.  It  is  found 
that,  although  the  carbonic  acid  gas  breathed  into  the  air  is 
heavy,  it  does  not  at  once  fall  toward  the  floor.     It  tends  to 


2o8 


VENTILATION 


rise  with  the  other  impurities  of  the  breathed-out  air,  pro- 
vided it  be  warmer  than  the  neighboring  air.  Otherwise  it 
sinks.  It  is  the  temperature  of  the  air  that  has  most 
influence  upon  the  movements  of  the  exhaled  breath  when 
no  external  influences,  such  as  draughts  for  instance,  are 
acting  upon  it. 

Fresh  air  that  is  sent  into  a  room  through  a  ventilating 
flue  in  winter,  should  preferably  come  in  at  the  upper  part 
of  the  wall ;  for,  being  warm  wherever  it  comes  into  the 
room,  it  rises  to  the  ceiling  and  draws  up  bad  air  with  it. 
If,  however,  at  the  same  time  an  unclosed  opening  into  an 
open  outlet  flue  exists  on  the  upper  part  of  the  wall  the 
fresh  air  tends  to  flow  out  at  once  into  that  without  cir- 
culating through  the  room.  Under  such  circumstances  the 
incoming  air  fails  to  purify  the  contaminated  air  that  may 
have  stood  long  in  the  room.  Furthermore,  a  very  rapid 
outflow  and  waste  of  heat  is  an  economic  loss. 

The  winter  outlet  for  ordinary  purposes  of  ventilation 

should  accordingly  be  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  room,  as  is 
the  case  with  a  flue  used  for 
an  open  grate  fire.  Fig.  31 
shows  the  winter  plan  and  Fig. 
32  the  summer  arrangement. 
The  difference  between  the 
proper  location  of  winter  ven- 
tilation and  that  for  summer  is 
likewise  shown  in  Fig.  20.  It 
is,  however,  always  desirable  to  have  a  ventilation  outlet  at 
the  upper  part  of  a  wall  or  even  in  the  ceiling.  In  winter 
this  is  usually  kept  closed.  It  ought  invariably  to  be  so 
arranged  that  it  can  at  any  time  be  opened  in  order  to 
let  out  rapidly  any  uncomfortable  excess  of  warmth,  and 
especially  so  when  such  warmth  is  due  to  the  heat  of  gas 
flames. 


^\\\\\\\\\\\\\^33:5^^ 

_VyjNTER    VENTILAVON 
Fig.  31. 


LOCATION    OF    INFLOW    AND    OUTFLOW    OPENINGS    209 


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This  illuminating-gas  heat  rises  toward  the  ceiling,  and 
has  in  it  various  harmful  gaseous  products  which  ought  not 
to  be  allowed  to  mingle  with  the  body  of  breathable  air 
in  the  room.  If  gas  be  used  abundantly,  the  gas-burners 
require  (above  and  near  them)  special  outlet  flues  for  their 
harmful  products.  Where  such  outlet  flues  do  not  exist 
especially  for  the  burners  (see  Figs.  i6  and  19),  a  ventilat- 
ing opening  in  the  ceiling  overhead  or  upon  the  upper  part 
of  a  wall  is  of  great  value. 

In  summer  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the  rooms  comfort- 
ably cool.     When  fresh  air  then     

comes  in  through  the  ventilat- 
ing supply  ducts,  it  is  found 
best  to  have  this  enter  the 
rooms  from  the  lower  part  of 
the  wall  as  shown  by  Fig.  32. 
The  air  of  the  room  is  warmed 
by  the  body  warmth  of  the  peo- 
ple present,  and  heated  by  the 
sun's  rays  if  they  enter.  Thus 
becoming  lighter  than  the  cooler  air  which  enters,  this  im- 
pure air  flows  upward  and  outward.  While  in  winter  the 
chimneys  are  Warm  and  dry  because  of  the  fires,  they  may 
in  summer  be  colder  than  the  remainder  of  the  house.  Air 
may  therefore  at  times  descend  chimneys  and  flow  out  of 
them  into  the  rooms  with  which  they  are  connected.  It 
is  accordingly  desirable,  in  the  absence  of  other  heating 
means,  to  use  burners  for  warming  flues  and  ventilating 
chimneys  so  as  to  cause  an  upward  current  in  these  flues 
when  they  are  relied  upon  to  draw  bad  air  out  of  rooms. 

The  inner  wall  of  a  room  is  always  to  be  preferred  for 
both  inflow  and  outflow  openings  and  flues.  The  warmth 
is  there  usually  more  even  and  permanent,  and  it  is  also  in 
general  the  best  location  for  a  chimney.  The  movement  of 
the  air  within  the  room  is  most  satisfactory  when  the  warm 
14 


SUMMER  VENTILATION 
Fig.  32. 


VENTILATION 


air  from  the  heater  enters  at  the  upper  part  of  the  wall  ; 

and  this  air  (after  circulating  about)  is  to  be  drawn  out  on 

the  same  wall  nearer  the  floor. 
This  is  indicated  in  Fig.  ;^^ 
(a  school-room)  where  the 
outlet  is  under  a  platform. 
The  principle  is  associated 
with  the  name  of  Mr.  Briggs, 
and  is  always  valuable  where 
suitable  exhaust  flues  exist 
and  are  properly  used.  This 
has    been    demonstrated    by 


Fig.  33- 


repeated  and  long-continued  use  in  various  highly  satisfac- 
tory buildings.  It  is  the  most  economical  way  of  utihzing 
the  indirect  method  of  steam-heating  or  furnace-heat  and 
at  the  same  time  ventilating  rooms. 

For  ventilating  large  and  very  high  rooms  and  also  warming  them 
for  a  short  time  to  a  not  very  high  temperature,  as  in  the  case  of 
churches,  it  is  found  that  air  from  numerous  small  openings  in  the 
entire  floor  effects  this  very  evenly.  In  such  a  case,  the  basement 
must  be  dry  and  warm  before  the  hour  or  more  for  which  the  room  is 
needed.  In  the  buildings  where  this  plan  has  been  carried  out  in  its 
fulness,  it  has  proved  quite  expensive  for  the  brief  time  that  it  was 
used.  If  by  such  means  the  floor  be  honeycombed  and  very  uneven 
and  irregular,  cleaning  may  be  obstructed  and  thereby  a  hygienic  de- 
fect introduced. 

In  mines,  ventilating  shafts  or  equivalent  means  of  renewing  the 
air  should  always  be  introduced  wherever  necessary.  A  fire  in  or  at 
the  top  of  a  shaft  helps  to  establish  the  healthful  upward  current.  For 
a  blind  tunnel  being  driven  into  the  solid  rock  and  where  of  course  no 
natural  ventilation  exists,  compressed  air  forced  in  through  pipes,  for 
the  purpose  of  running  the  power  drills,  furnishes  air  to  breathe  and  to 
drive  out  the  poisonous  products  of  the  explosives  used.  Some  sort  of 
ventilation  -is  necessary  if  men  work  steadily  in  such  places.  Good 
ventilation  is  not  only  indispensable  to  the  health  of  the  miners,  but 
also  proves  economical  for  the  employers.  It  enables  them  to  get 
more  and  better  work  done. 

In  the  States  where  "  fire-damp"  (carburetted  hydrogen)  occurs  in 


VENTIT.ATION 


211 


coal  mines,  legislative  enactments  usually  require  that,  for  each  miner, 
at  least  as  much  as  lOO  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  is  supplied  every  minute. 
Several  times  that  much  is  desirable,  especially  in  mines  where  the 
dangerous  gases  are  very  abundant. 

On  a  steamship  which  is  steadily  propelled  against  a  wind  or 
through  a  calm,  such  devices  as  the  "blower"  shown  in  Fig.  34 
turned  against  the  wind  can  cause  fresh 
air  to  be  driven  into  the  interior  of  the 
vessel  at  the  rate  of  a  number  of  feet 
per  second.  At  the  same  time,  similar 
contrivances,  turned  away  from  the  wind 
(see  Fig.  35),  cause  air  to  be  drawn  out 
of  the  interior  of  the  vessel.  The  fresh- 
air  draught  created  in  this  way  may  be 
altogether  too  strong  for  health.  In 
every  case,  great  care  ought  to  be  taken 
to  diffuse  the  powerful  incoming  current  gently  and  equably  over  all 
parts  of  the  staterooms  or  steerage.  Shipbuilders  and  seamen  do  not 
usually  attend  with  sufficient  care  to  their  respective  duties  as  regards 
this  very  important  matter.  We  therefore  see  some  passengers  and 
sailors  deprived  of  sufficient  air,  while  others,  especially  in  the  upper 
berths,  have  draughts  blowing  directly 
upon  them.  In  both  ways  the  health 
may  be  unfavorably  affected.  For  men- 
of-war  and  other  ships  that  are  to  lie 
at  anchor,  mechanical  means  of  driving 
fresh  air  throughout  the  vessel  are  also 
needed. 


Fig.  34. 


Fig.  35. 


Flues  and  air-conduits  should, 
as  already  said,  be  at  least  large 
enough  for  their  purpose.  The 
inside  of  all  pipes  ought  always 
to  be  smooth.  All  contractions 
and  bends  cause  waste  by  the 
retardation  that  comes  from  fric- 
tion. For  turning  off  a  current  or  a  portion  of  a  current 
in  a  side  direction,  a  gradual,  smooth  curve  (see  Fig.  36) 
is  better  than  a  sharp  bend.     If  flues  be  not  already  prop- 


FlG.  36. 


212 


VENTILATION 


erly  built  into  the  wall,  galvanized-iron  tubes  (see  Fig. 
36^)  may  be  used  to  help  out  the  ventilation.  Like  all 
flues  these  should  be  perfectly  tight.  Especially  must  they 
be  free  from  any  contact  with  plumbing  waste-pipes,  whether 

these  be  defective  or  not.  In- 
spection of  even  the  most  costly 
dwellings  reveals  at  times  very 
glaring  offences  of  this  sort. 

To  test  for  the  existence  of 
such  dangerous  conditions,  use  is 
made  of  a  little  furnace  and  fan- 
blower  driving  pungent  smoke 
into  the  soil-pipe  at  the  roof. 
Such  smoke  flows  out  through 
any  leaks  in  the  drainage  system. 
It  sometimes  reveals  very  un- 
healthful  faults  of  construction 
^^^'  3^"^'  and  repair  where  the  hot-air  fur- 

nace or  the  ventilating  flues  are  in  communication  with 
badly  leaking  soil-pipes.  It  is  best  that  ventilating  pipes 
be  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  well  cleaned  at  frequent 
intervals.  Otherwise  they  may  become  loaded  with  dust 
and  abounding  in  unhealthful  dirt  that  can  be  drawn  back 
into  rooms  in  case  that  the  current  of  air  happens  to  flow 
backward. 

It  is  proper  here  to  state  that  not  only  humanity  but  also 
the  interests  of  self-preservation  should  compel  an  allowance 
of  more  air-space  than  is  usually  given  to  stabled  animals. 
Without  fresh  air  and  light,  all  domestic  animals  languish 
and  become  more  readily  a  prey  to  diseases.  These  diseases 
may  spread  to  human  beings.  Wise  regulations  by  a  very 
few  of  our  leading  cities  require  that  all  stables  for  cows 
contain  at  least  1,000  cubic  feet  of  space  for  each  animal. 
Wherever  possible,  several  times  that  much  should  be 
allowed. 


FOODS 

To  compensate  for  the  constant  waste  of  the  body,  new- 
substance  must  be  suppUed  for  the  nutrition  of  the  various 
parts.  This  necessary  addition  is  effected  by  the  system 
through  the  use  of  foods.  From  the  healthy  digestive 
organs  the  greater  part  of  the  food  swallowed  is  absorbed 
in  a  more  or  less  changed  and  fluid  form.  Finally,  under 
the  influence  of  the  cells  in  the  several  organs,  the  nutri- 
ment is  converted  into  new  tissue,  body  warmth  and  work. 

The  indispensable  food  elements  required  for  main- 
taining the  perfect  balance  of  the  intricate  human  organism 
are  water,  salts,  albumens,  fats,  and  carbohydrates  (the 
latter  being  usually  in  the  form  of  starch  and  sugar). 
While  the  daily  amount  of  these  that  one  needs  may  vary 
much,  there  is  a  normal  allowance  below  which  it  is  not 
wise  to  restrict  the  food  quantity  under  ordinary  conditions 
of  health  and  activity.  The  figures  of  Voit  and  Petten- 
kofer  are  still  generally,  accepted  with  slight  modifications, 
and  give  the  standard  chemical  requirements  of  a  normal 
diet. 

These  observers  consider  the  amount  needed  daily  by  an 
average  workingman  weighing  not  much  over  150  pounds, 
as  nearly  the  following  :  Albumen,  4^  oz.  ;  fats,  2}  oz.  ; 
carbohydrates,  i  lb.  ;  water,  2  qts.  + .  This  estimate  (in 
avoirdupois  weight)  is  considerably  below  the  actual  figures 
which  we  derive  from  analyzing  the  carefully  arranged 
data  of  some  establishments  where  it  is  known  just  how 
much  the  average  diet  of  large  bodies  of  laboring  men 
amounts  to.  Thus,  recent  statistics  from  the  enormous  cast- 
steel  works  of  Krupp  show  that  each  man  there  receives  an 


214  FOODS 

allowance  greatly  exceeding  this,  especially  in  the  non- 
albuminous  elements  of  the  diet. 

At  the  above-designated  model  establishment,  a  practical 
school  is  maintained  for  teaching  cooking  and  housekeeping 
to  the  daughters  of  families  connected  with  the  works. 
The  diet  of  these  girls  (14  to  18  years  of  age  and  weighing 
on  an  average  nearly  100  pounds)  contains  :  Albumen,  3J 
oz.  ;  fats,  2^  oz.  +;  carbohydrates,  14  oz.  (avoirdupois). 
Upon  this  diet,  the  girls  thrive,  and  their  weight  appears 
to  exceed  the  general  average  of  their  age  and  sex. 

When  there  is  a  great  strain  upon  the  body,  as  in  the  case 
of  nursing  women  or  of  men  laboring  hard,  the  above  allow- 
ances should  be  exceeded.  Especially  then  are  more  fats 
desirable.  Old  and  inactive  people  need  less  than  the 
above-indicated  amount  of  food.  The  tendency  among 
the  luxurious  and  well-to-do  classes  is  to  eat  too  much. 
This,  with  the  absence  of  sufficient  gentle  bodily  exercise, 
contributes  to  cause  some  of  their  ailments.  Intemperate 
excess  in  eating  should  receive  a  share  of  the  condemnation 
lavished  by  zealous  reformers,  but  whose  strained  energies 
seem  concentrated  exclusively  on  preventing  all  use  of 
alcoholic  beverages.  The  general  effect  of  overeating  is  to 
lessen  the  health  and  to  shorten  the  life.  Very  old  people 
have  rarely  been  heavy  eaters. 

Whenever  the  food  is  actually  insufficient  for  keeping  the 
various  parts  of  the  human  body  in  a  normal  condition,  the 
stored-up  fat  of  the  system  is  taken  out  of  the  tissues  and 
consumed  first.  Yet  the  nervous  system  loses  in  starvation 
only  a  very  small  percentage  of  its  abundant  fat.  The 
fixed,  organized  albumen  of  the  tissues  is  then  given  up  only 
in  scanty  amounts  corresponding  to  that  portion  of  the 
body-cells  that  is  used  up. 

Albuminous  substances  (called  also  **  proteids  ")  are 
indispensable  tissue-forming  constituents  of  our  food.  While 
albumen  is  capable  of  conversion  into  fat  in  the  body,  the 


FOODS    AND    DIET  215 

carbohydrates  (starch  and  sugars)  and  the  fats  are  incapable 
of  conversion  into  albumen.  This  is  because  nitrogen,  the 
distinguishing  chemical  element  present  in  albumen,  is 
wholly  absent  from  the  carbohydrates.  These  latter,  how- 
ever, containing  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  can  become 
converted  into  fat  in  the  body. 

Like  fat,  the  carbohydrates  by  being  consumed  (or  liter- 
ally burned  up)  in  the  system  can  produce  the  greater  part 
of  the  heat  and  work  of  the  body.  It  is  the  combustion 
of  these  non-nitrogenous  substances  in  great  part,  and  not 
largely  the  using  up  of  albumens,  that,  under  the  best 
health  conditions,  produces  work  and  heat.  This  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that,  when  we  work,  the  excretion  of  carbonic 
dioxide  is  distinctly  increased,  and  that  then  the  excretion 
of  nitrogen  depends  upon  the  amount  of  albumen  in  our 
food. 

In  an  average  mixed  diet,  sufficient  salts  (phosphates, 
chlorides,  carbonates,  sulphates,  iron  salts,  alkaline  earths, 
alkalies,  etc.)  are  afforded.  Water  enters  largely  into  the 
composition  of  our  foods,  and  the  remainder  needed  is  sup- 
plied by  that  which  we  drink.  As  will  be  explained  later, 
the  purer  the  water,  the  better  must  it  be  considered  for  the 
health.  The  less  a  water  has  of  mineral  ingredients,  the 
more  suited  is  it  for  the  table  or  for  any  other  uses. 

A  mixed  diet  is  the  best  for  maintaining  the  health  ; 
exclusive  use  of  any  class  of  foods  is  to  be  avoided.  In  the 
adaptation  of  a  mixed  diet,  the  fats  and  special  fat-forming 
elements  need  most  to  be  modified  according  to  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  amount  of  work  and  heat  demanded.  Work- 
ing in  cold  weather,  one  needs  much  more  fat  than  in  warm 
seasons.  In  hot  summer  weather,  fat  is  not  generally  rel- 
ished so  well  as  in  colder  times  of  the  year.  Hence  we 
should  in  summer  use  less  fat  and  more  in  proportion  of  the 
most  easily  digestible  of  the  starchy  foods,  such  as  rice  and 
wheat  bread.     The  latter  furnishes  also  considerable  albu- 


2l6  ■  FOODS 

minous  substance  as  well.  Unlike  fats,  the  amount  allowed 
of  lean  meat,  if  always  eaten  in  moderation,  need  not  be 
very  much  lessened  with  the  coming  of  the  warm  season. 
This  is  because  nearly  as  much  albumen  is  then  needed  for 
the  absolute  repair  of  the  waste  of  nitrogenous  tissue. 

An  excess  of  fats  in  the  food  tends  especially  to  pro- 
duce an  increase  of  stored-up  fat  in  the  system.  Contrary 
to  Ebstein,  it  is  generally  regarded  that  the  fat  eaten  as 
such  is  more  apt  to  be  stored  up  than  is  the  fat  formed  in 
the  system  from  the  non-fatty  elements  of  our  diet.  Yet, 
if  it  be  desired  to  lay  on  fat,  the  albuminous  substances 
and  also  the  starches  and  sugars  in  the  food  must  be 
increased  as  well  as  the  fats. 

This  is  because  the  tissues  need  to  be  kept  up  to  their 
healthy  condition  by  being  allowed  as  much  albumen  as 
they  can  well  take  care  of.  At  the  same  time  the  uneco- 
nomical conversion  of  this  into  fat  is  lessened  by  giving  an 
excess  of  starchy  foods.  To  produce  a  laying  on  of  fat 
from  eating  starchy  (or  other  carbohydrate)  food,  we  must 
allow  nearly  two-and-a-half  times  as  much  as  corresponds 
to  the  consumption  of  fats  in  the  system.  It  is  better  that 
starchy  and  sweet  foods  be  not  eaten  in  any  considerable 
quantity  when  the  stomach  is  already  quite  full  of  meat. 

Although  fats  are  more  costly,  it  is  not  well  to  substitute 
the  carbohydrates  in  too  great  a  degree  for  these.  Starches 
and  sugars  afford  a  more  favorable  medium  for  the  growth 
of  intestinal  microorganisms  with  their  consequent  fermen- 
tations and  gases  of  decomposition.  Thence  catarrhal  con- 
ditions and  diarrhoeas  are  apt  to  result,  especially  in  infants. 
The  babe  that  thrives  with  milk  and  cream  or  cod-liver  oil 
is  apt  to  become  ill  if  fed  on  starchy  food. 

The  human  system  is  a  very  perfect  mechanism,  and  can 
by  its  vital  processes  avail  itself  of  and  manifest  in  work 
nearly  one-fourth  of  what  physicists  term  the  caloric  and 
potential  energy  of  the  material  taken  in  as  food.     This  is 


CHEMICAL    STANDARDS    AND    DIGESTIBILITY  217 

mechanically  a  much  more  perfect  result  than  the  steam 
engine  gets  out  of  the  fuel  which  it  uses.  Practically  it  is 
not  wise  for  individuals  to  estimate  the  value  of  foods  by 
considering  only  the  exact  chemical  composition.  Foods 
that  are  chemically  equivalent  are  not  of  necessity  equally 
nutritious.     (Compare  tables  on  pages  218  and  220.) 

Those  who  construct  diet  lists  purely  on  a  chemical  basis 
do  not  appear  to  realize  how  important  it  is  to  consider  the 
condition  and  activity  of  the  digesting  and  absorbing  mu- 
cous membrane.  The  individual  peculiarities  and  the  state 
of  health,  the  preparation  and  quality  of  the  food, — all 
affect  the  question.  The  albuminous  matter  enclosed  in 
an  indigestible  cellulose  coating  of  an  insufficiently  cooked 
vegetable  cell  is  very  much  inferior,  as  food,  to  the  more 
absorbable  elements  of  good  meat.  If  too  much  food  be 
in  the  stomach,  the  system  can  utilize,  for  nourishment,  less 
of  this  food  than  when  a  small  meal  is  eaten. 

Meat  digests  best  when  no  other  food  is  with  it  in  the 
stomach.  The  healthy  condition  of  the  digestive  apparatus 
is  essential  to  the  best  digestion.  It  is  not  desirable  to  say 
that  such  and  such  a  meat  or  other  article  of  food  is  digest- 
ible in  two  or  three  hours  or  any  other  time.  There  is  very 
little  definitely  known  to  enable  us  to  say  how  it  will  be 
in  a  given  case.  The  experience  of  any  individual  as  to 
whether  a  food  "agrees  "  or  "  disagrees"  is  a  better  guide 
for  that  person  than  any  tables  which  can  be  offered. 

The  method  of  cooking  affects  the  digestibility  of 
foods  to  a  great  extent.  If  soaked  in  fatty  sauces  and 
abounding  in  the  aromatic,  savory  substances  coming  from 
the  action  of  high  heat  upon  fatty  tissue,  a  meat  may  give 
evidence  of  remaining  in  the  stomach  for  twice  the  three 
hours  (more  or  less)  that  it  requires  for  digestion  when 
cooked  very  plainly  and  when  only  a  little  is  eaten. 

We  can  however  speak  more  precisely  when  it  is  a 
question  of  the  absorbability  of  food.     Thus  we  find  that 


2l8 


FOODS 


of  various  kinds  of  food  received  into  the  stomach  a  varying 
amount  is  taken  up  and  assimilated  by  the  system.  From 
figures  given  by  different  authors  it  may  be  regarded  that, 
of  the  following  foods,  the  percentages  assimilated  after 
they  are  taken  into  the  adult  stomach  amount  to  : — 


Meat  .  . 
Eggs  (boiled) 
Milk  .  . 
White  bread 
Split  peas  . 
Macaroni  . 
Rice  .  . 
Potatoes     . 


OF  THE  DRY 

SUBSTANCE. 


95-4^ 

94.8 
92.3 

95 
90.7 

95 

95.9 

90-5 


OF  THE 

ALBUMEN. 


OF  THE 
FATS. 


83.4^ 

95-5 
96.7 


94.2 

93-1 
96.2 


OF  THE 
CARBOHYDRATES. 


96.2 
97.8 
99.1 
92.4 


OF  THE 
SALTS. 


51-3 


79.2 

85 
84.2 


ComiTion  salt  is  the  one  relish  that  is  actually  indispens- 
able to  health.  In  an  exclusive  meat  diet,  this  is  abundant ; 
yet  lime  and  potash  salts  are  there  deficient.  On  the  other 
hand,  common  salt  is  not  sufficiently  abundant  in  vegetables. 
Hence  the  propriety  of  adding  this  to  the  food.  Cooking 
may  lessen  the  lime-salts  of  milk  by  driving  off  the  carbonic 
acid  gas  which  held  some  of  these  salts  in  solution. 

Human  beings  are  not  mere  digestive  machines.  The 
will  and  fancy  count  for  much,  and  destroy  the  value  of  a 
purely  chemical  standard.  These  factors  also  require  that 
food  shall  be  savory  and  varied  as  well  as  wholesome. 
Furthermore,  people  demand  the  addition  of  other  and  innu- 
tritious  substances  to  the  diet.  Of  these,  the  various  spices 
and  condiments  are  fortunately  not  used  here  as  much  as 
among  some  other  nations.  The  desire  for  alcoholic  liquors 
and  the  less  flagrantly  harmful  kindred  luxuries — tea,  coffee 
and  tobacco — seems  to  be  universal.  These  are  all  prejudi- 
cial to  the  health,  and  the  human  races  would  be  stronger 
if  such  substances  were  unknown. 


ANLMAL    FOODS  219 

Animal  food  appears  in  general  to  be  more  nutritious 
and  better  utilizable  than  vegetable  food.  Yet  some  very 
nutritious  foods  (such  as  cheese,  lobster,  etc.)  may  prove 
difficult  or  even  painful  for  the  stomach  to  digest.  Cook- 
ing may  increase  or  lessen  the  digestibility  of  a  food,  its 
nutritive  value  being  perhaps  unchanged.  Cooking  makes 
tough  meat  more  digestible.  Tender  meat  digests  equally 
well  whether  raw  or  cooked. 

Meat  (including  the  flesh  of  fish)  is  the  main  reliance 
for  supplying  the  albumen  needed  by  the  human  system. 
It  comprises  in  its  substance  nearly  everything  required  for 
the  nutrition  of  the  body.  The  bones,  however,  are  not 
digestible  and  absorbable.  If  eaten,  they  do  not  contribute 
to  the  bone  substance  of  the  body. 

From  the  table  on  page  220,  we  see  that  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  different  meats  varies  somewhat.  Yet 
from  a  commercial  or  a  hygienic  point  of  view,  these  dif- 
ferences are  less  important  than  is  the  amount  of  fibrous 
tissue  and  the  tough  envelope  (sarcolemma)  around  the 
muscle  fibres.  The  toughness,  that  these  elements  cause, 
is  lessened  when  the  meat  is  kept  for  some  days  or  weeks. 
This  is  because  of  the  softening  action  of  the  dilute  lactic 
acid,  formed  in  the  meat  when  kept,  and  which  is  so 
important  in  making  game  and  other  meat  more  tender  by 
keeping.  Vinegar  and  other  dilute  acids  are  often  used  for 
the  same  purpose. 

Fish  in  general  has  less  of  this  fibrous  substance.  It 
is  best  eaten  in  a  fresh  state.  Fish-meat  is  also  quite 
perishable,  abounding  in  bacteria  as  it  often  does.  It  needs 
to  be  well  cooked.  Salmon,  eels  and  similar  fish  have  a  con- 
siderable percentage  of  nutritious  fat  which,  however,  makes 
these  fish  difficult  of  digestion  for  many  persons.  The 
herring  is  the  most  valuable  of  the  fat  fishes.  Oysters  and 
other  shell-fish  afford  much  less  nutriment  than  they  are 
usually  thought  to  yield.     If  from  filthy  waters  and  eaten 


220 


FOODS 


Chemical  Composition  of  Animal  Foods 

Expressed  in  percentages 


Human  milk  (average) 
Cow's  milk  " 

Goat's  milk  " 

Butter  (unsalted) 
Cheese  (medium  fat) 
Beef (average)     . 
Beef  (corned) 
Veal  (average) 
Mutton  (average) 
Pork  (fat  meat)   . 
Pork  (lean  meat) 
Venison      .     .     . 
Blood  (of  ox) 
Oysters       .     .     . 
Salmon  (California) 
Herring  (fresh)    . 
Mackerel  (fresh) 
Trout     .... 
Hen's  eggs      .     . 


Water. 

Albumen 

88.00 

2.00 

87.50 

3-45 

86.50 

4.00 

14.60 

0.75 

42.20 

29.50 

72.00 

20.95 

58.30 

30.00 

75.00 

19.50 

75-25 

17.20 

47-40 

14-54 

72.57 

20.25 

7^76 

19.77 

77-34 

20.87 

89.70 

4-95 

61.80 

20.15 

74.64 

14-55 

71.20 

19.36 

77-51 

19.18 

73.67 

12.55 

Fat. 


3.60 
3-70 
4.00 

83-55 
22.00 
5.85 
8.20 
4-30 
6.30 

37-34 

6.81 

1.92 

o 

0.37 

15-70 
9-03 
8.08 

2.10 
12. II 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
(etc.) 

6.00 

4.70 

4.70 

0.90 
1.80 

0.32 

0.20 

1.42 

97 

2.63 


0.55 


Salts. 


0.40 
0.65 
0.80 
0.20 
4.50 
I-I5 
350 

I.  GO 

1-25 
0.72 
1. 10 

T-I3 
0.82 

2.35 
2.35 
1.78 
1.36 
I. 21 
1. 12 


Chemical  Composition  of  Vegetable  Foods 

Expressed  in  percentages 


Carbo- 

Water. 

Albumen. 

Fat  (oils). 

hydrates, 
etc. 

Salts. 

Spring  w^heat  ,     .     . 

11.80 

12.25 

2.05 

72.20 

1.70 

White  bread    .     . 

35-59 

7.06 

0.46 

56.90 

1.09 

Oatmeal      .     .     . 

10-13 

12-19 

5-7 

70-74 

1-2 

Cornmeal  (maize) 

12.65 

9-35 

7.40 

69.50 

I. 10 

Rice       .... 

12.58 

6.73 

0.88 

78.98 

0.83 

Potatoes 

74.98 

1.88 

0.16 

21.92 

1.06 

Dry  beans 

12.04 

24.02 

2.07 

•  58.25 

3.62 

Cabbage 

87.06 

2.74 

0.63 

8.45 

I. 12 

Apples  . 

84.76 

0  37 

14-35 

0.52 

Grapes  . 

78.17 

0.59 



20.71 

0.53 

Bananas 

79-36 

4-85 

0.53 

19.69 

0.97 

PRESERVED    MEAT  221 

raw,  they  introduce  an  element  of  danger  by  carrying  harm- 
ful bacteria.  Chemical  poisons  are  also  contained  in  them 
at  times.  Fish-meat,  when  white,  although  containing  con- 
siderable water,  is  yet  a  good  substitute  for  flesh  of  animals 
and  may  be  recommended  for  albuminous  diet  to  those  who 
enjoy  fish  and  digest  it  easily. 

The  prejudice  existing  against  veal  as  an  innutritious 
meat  is  not  justifiable,  provided  that  the  calf  has  not  been 
killed  till  several  weeks  after  birth.  Meats  and  fish  that 
have  been  "  preserved"  by  drying  or  other  means  have  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  fresh  product  ;  yet  the  processes 
usually  make  these  less  digestible.  In  the  process  of  "  corn- 
ing," trichiiicE  that  may  be.  present  are  believed  to  be 
speedily  killed  if  in  the  outer  parts  of  the  meat.  It  takes 
weeks  for  the  pickle  to  penetrate  in  such  strength  as  to  kill 
those  trichinae  that  are  an  inch  deep  in  the  meat.  Tubercle 
bacilli  and  others  can  live  for  months  in  the  strongest  brine. 
Hence  salted  pork  or  beef  always  requires  to  be  cooked. 

The  process  of  preservation  by  "  smoking  "  meat,  etc.,  is 
regarded  by  many  as  speedily  killing  trichinae  and  other 
microorganisms  by  the  drying  and  by  the  creosote  of  the 
smoke  used.  Yet  it  is  always  advisable  to  cook  such  food, 
since  recent  experiments  have  shown  that  bacteria  of  various 
kinds  survive  "  smoking."  Bacon  should  always  be  well 
cooked. 

Preserved  meats  that  give  an  alkaline  reaction  to  test 
paper  are  to  be  suspected  as  being  prepared  from  un- 
wholesome raw  meat.  Salicylic  acid  is  often  introduced 
into  preserved  food  of  all  sorts.  Its  presence  is  hygien- 
ically  undesirable,  although  it  is  a  valuable  preservative. 
To  detect  it,  the  delicate  violet  reaction  with  chloride  of 
iron  is  relied  upon.  Dry  cold  affords  the  best  means  of 
preserving  meat. 

In  canned  meats,  we  do  not  fear  disease  germs.  The 
heat  of  the  process  that  suffices  to  preserve  the  meat  will 


22  2  FOODS 

have  destroyed  bacteria.  Metals,  and  particularly  lead, 
may  be  present,  especially  if  the  contents  have  been 
allowed  to  remain  long  in  the  can  after  opening.  For 
examining  canned  food  we  first  employ  a  good  magnifying 
glass  for  detecting  particles  of  lead,  etc.  Then  the  meat  is 
analyzed  in  the  usual  way  for  lead.     (See  page  252.) 

Meat  extracts,  prepared  foods,  proprietary  beef  prepara- 
tions, etc.,  have  for  the  usual  conditions  of  health  or  dis- 
ease little  or  no  hygienic  superiority  over  the  cheaper 
domestic  preparations  such  as  scraped  beef,  broths,  etc. 
The  much  advertised  articles  are  usually  inferior  and  lack- 
ing in  the  merit  that  they  are  claimed  to  possess. 

Meat  from  various  birds  is  much  like  other  flesh  in  chemi- 
cal composition.  Yet  their  muscles  are  less  bound  in  fibrous 
tissue  than  is  the  case  with  other  meat,  and  hence  are  more 
delicate.  Although  rich  in  albumen,  this  meat  is  relatively 
deficient  in  salts  and  fat.  Grain-fed  fowl  are  best.  An 
odor  of  decomposition,  bluish  color  or  spotting  of  the  skin 
should  cause  the  poultry  having  it  to  be  rejected. 

The  internal  organs  of  slaughtered  animals  have,  with 
the  exception  of  the  lungs,  nearly  as  much  albumen  and 
fat  value  as  ordinary  meat.  They  are  to  be  classed  with  it 
in  nutritive  worth.  Sausages  are  nutritious  but  are  often 
made  of  diseased  meat.  In  any  case,  they  should  be  well 
cooked.  According  to  Ostertag,  the  addition  of  more  than 
two  per  cent,  of  flour  to  sausages  deserves  to  be  considered 
an  objectionable  adulteration. 

Dangerous  Parasites  in  Meat 
Trichinae  enter  the  human  system  almost  always  through 
uncooked  pork.  They  are  found  in  lean  pork  and  very 
rarely  indeed  in  the  fat  substance.  They  are  minute  worms, 
less  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long  when  full-grown.  The 
female  is  much  larger  than  the  male.  These  worms  lie 
coiled  up  (see  Figs.  37  and  sS),  immature  and  inert,  in  the 


TRTCHINiE 


223 


I"-"' 


Fig.  37. 


muscle  substance  of  pork  and  surrounded  by  an  oval  cap- 
sule visible  to  the  naked  eye.  This  is  apt  to  appear  very 
white,  owing  to  the  infiltration  of  lime  salts  into  it. 
These  worms  mature  in  about  two  days  after 
they  have  entered  the  bowel  with  the  lean  pork 
that  is  eaten.  Then  they  propagate  and,  within  a 
week,  more  than  a  thousand  minute  embryos  result. 
These  new  trichinae  burrow  through  the  bowel  wall 
and  reach  muscles  in  which  they  appear  just  like 
the  original  ones  in  the  pork  from  which  they  originated. 
The  prolonged,  slow  burrowing  of  very  many  thousands  of 
_  these    causes    the    muscular   pain    and    other 

p»k^p^    symptoms.     If  only  few  trichinae  are  present, 
the  trouble  is  often  mistaken  for  rheumatism. 

To  prevent  this  disease,  care  is  required  to 
see  that  swine  do  not  get  it  by  eating  rats  or 
other  animals  (or  offal  from  swine  that  are 
trichinous).  J^ork  should  not  be  eaten  unless 
it  has  been  well  cooked.  If  it  be  cooked  so 
that  the  interior  in  all  parts  reaches  a  tem- 
perature of  140°  F.,  this  will  have  killed  the 
trichinae.  If  pork  has  been  eaten  that  is  sus- 
pected of  containing  these  worms  in  a  live 
state,  prompt  and  thorough  purgation  will 
ward  off  much  of  the  danger. 

Meat  should  always  have  been  inspected  by  faithful  and 
competent  officials  whose  work  is  "  controlled "  by  occa- 
sional independent  tests.  An  ordinary  microscope,  magni- 
fying fifty  times,  suffices  for  the  purpose  of  examining  pork 
(or  other  meat)  for  trichinae.  A  dozen  or  more  half-inch 
pieces  are  cut  thin  (as  by  curved  scissors)  from  the  belly 
muscles  as  well  as  from  the  diaphragm  and  deep  throat 
muscles.  Each  piece  is  then  torn  somewhat  and,  in  a  drop 
of  glycerine  or  of  potash  solution  (but  preferably  without 
the   addition  of  water  to  fresh  pork,  according  to  Johne), 


Fig.  38. 


224 


FOODS 


is  pressed  between  two  pieces  of  glass.  A  low  power  of  the 
microscope  suffices  then  to  detect  the  minute  worms.  If 
the  pork  has  been  smoked  (ham  or  bacon)  it  must  be 
soaked  for  a  few  minutes  in  weak  acetic  acid.  Other  harm- 
ful parasites  may  be  recognized  at  the  same  time. 

Fig.  39  (after.  Leuckart)  represents  a  piece  of  lean  meat 
from  a  measly  hog.  The  little  cysticercus  cysts  which 
cause  the  disease  are  there  shown  of  life  size.  They  may, 
however,  be  a  trifle  larger  or  smaller  than  there  given.  If 
meat  which  contains  these  be  eaten 
uncooked,  they  are  liable  to  de- 
velop into  tapeworms  in  the  intes- 
tine. If  one  of  these  little  bladders 
be  pricked  and  then  examined  be- 
tween two  pieces  of  glass,  with  the 
aid  of  a  microscope  or  a  strong 
lens,  a  characteristic  circle  of  hooks 
is  readily  seen.  Not  only  tape- 
worm but  also  hydatid  tumors  can 
come  from  eating  beef  or  pork  that 
has  not  been  cooked  well.  It  may  here  be  mentioned  that 
tapeworms  may  result  from  careless  contact  with  dogs  or 
from  drinking  uncooked  water  that  comes  from  a  place  fre- 
quented by  dogs. 

Tuberculosis  is  the  most  notable  of  the  bacterial  dis- 
eases that  occur  in  the  meat  of  cattle  and  hogs.  Even 
more  than  from  three  to  five  per  cent,  of  the  average 
slaughtered  cattle  reveal  the  characteristic  nodules  of  tuber- 
culosis, and  often  the  disease  is  still  further  advanced.  In 
some  regions,  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  cattle  have  this 
disease.  The  glands  and  membranes  about  the  intestine 
should  be  carefully  examined  in  all  cases.  Also  the  inside 
and  outside  of  the  lungs.  If  the  muscles  are  not  affected 
— and  they  usually  are  not — it  is  regarded  as  not  necessary 
to  condemn  the  meat  merely  because  lungs  or  glands  are 


Fig.  39- 


DANGEROUS    DISEASES    OF    MEAT  225 

infected.  Yet,  owing  to  the  possibility  of  infection,  such 
meat  must  be  well  cooked  ;  for  thorough  cooking  destroys 
the  harmfulness  of  those  germs  that  may  be  present  in  the 
meat.  Calves  are  much  less  liable  to  have  the  disease  than 
are  older  cattle.  Sheep  have  it  much  less  than  cattle,  and 
goats  almost  never  have  tuberculosis. 

Animals  that  have  died  of  fever  of  any  kind  must  be 
condemned  as  unfit  for  food.  Beef  from  a  cow  that  has 
died  of  calf -birth  fever  may  cause  serious  diarrhoeal  and 
other  symptoms.  Cooking  does  not  destroy  the  poison  of 
this  meat.  Bollinger,  Ostertag  and  others  have  published 
enumerations  of  several  thousand  cases  of  illness  caused 
by  eating  such  meat.  "  Joint  disease  "  should  cause  meat 
to  be  condemned. 

The  carcasses  of  animals  that  have  died  of  splenic  fever 
must  be  burned  up  or  buried  very  deep,  as  the  disease  is 
very  dangerous.  In  this  disease,  as  also  with  glanders  or 
farcy,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  infection  from  han- 
dling. Inspection  enables  an  examiner  of  any  skill  to  detect 
these  and  other  unusual  appearances,  such  as  the  little, 
yellow  grain-like  points  as  well  as  abscesses  caused  by  the 
same  microorganism  {actinomyces)  that  produces  "lumpy 
jaw  "  in  cattle  and  hogs.  Meat  having  these  present  must 
be  condemned. 

When  meat,  upon  being  cut,  is  "watery'*  or  even  bloody 
it  is  at  least  inferior  and  probably  from  a  diseased  animal. 
Such  meat  is  particularly  apt  to  decompose  speedily.  Red- 
dening, swelling  and  thickening  are  the  first  signs  by  which 
meat  from  an  inflamed  part  is  recognized.  The  other  signs 
are  so  obviously  unlike  the  appearances  of  sound  meat  that 
the  least  care  allows  them  to  be  recognized.  Swollen  and 
dingy-looking  meat  is  to  be  suspected.  So,  too,  is  that  which 
is  yellowish-waxy  in  appearance.  "Blowing  up"  meat,  by 
forcing  in  air  through  bellows  or  by  other  less  cleanly  means, 
may  drive  in  bacteria  from  outside.  The  meat  then  does 
15 


226  FOODS 

not  keep  so  well  as  it  otherwise  would.  The  object  of  treat- 
ing the  meat  thus  is  to  make  it  seem  more  tender  and  to 
increase  the  bulk. 

Bad  meat  is  altogether  too  often  put  into  sausages. 
At  times  the  organic  poisons  called  ptomames  are  developed 
in  sausages.  In  such  cases  the  meat  decomposes  and  pro- 
duces these  poisons  owing  to  bacteria  present.  Cooking 
kills  the  bacteria  and  arrests  the  process,  yet  cooking  does 
not  necessarily  destroy  the  poison  already  formed  by  the 
activity  of  the  bacteria. 

"  Gamy  "  flavor  of  wild  fowl  and  other  meat  that  has 
been  kept  rather  long  after  being  killed,  depends  upon  the 
added  taste  imparted  by  the  gases  and  other  products 
resulting  from  the  activity  of  millions  of  bacteria  that  de- 
velop in  the  intestines  and  on  other  moist  surfaces  of  the 
bird  or  other  creature.  These  products  of  decomposition, 
in  limited  quantities  at  least,  do  not  appear  to  derange  the 
health  of  gourmets  who  are  used  to  them.  Yet  meat  having 
these  bacteria  or  their  products  present  should  not  be  ap- 
proved ;  for  many  people  cannot  tolerate  such  tainted  meat. 

Microorganisms  grow  most  rapidly  when  the  food  upon 
which  they  fall  is  moist.  The  dryer  and  cooler  it  is,  the  less 
do  they  thrive.  This  explains  the  great  importance  of  keep- 
ing ice-chests  and  refrigerating  rooms  very  dry.  Freshly 
slaughtered  meat  should  be  kept  in  dry,  artificially  cooled 
rooms  for  a  few  days. 

Food  animals  need  to  be  carefully  watched  during  life, 
and  examined  by  experts  before  being  slaughtered.  After 
that,  the  meat  should  be  inspected  faithfully  by  people 
skilled  in  detecting  the  evidences  of  disease.  The  health 
of  all  demands  that  private  slaughter-houses  be  abolished 
or  constantly  supervised.  General  public  slaughter-houses 
constantly  supervised  are  best.  In  any  case,  the  official 
inspectors  must  be  wholly  independent  and  beyond  any 
control  of  butchers  or  drovers. 


EGGS MILK  227 

Eggs,  as  shown  by  the  analysis  given  on  page  220,  are 
quite  nutritious.  Yet  in  that  respect  they  are  inferior  to 
good  meat.  The  egg  of  an  average  hen  has  no  more  food 
value  than  one-third  of  a  pint  of  milk,  and  lacks  the  sugar 
of  the  milk.  One  dozen  of  eggs  have  only  a  trifle  more 
food  value  than  a  pound  of  fat  meat. 

Milk  is  an  emulsion  of  fat  (in  globules  of  varying  size)  in 
a  solution  of  albumen  (chiefly  casein),  milk-sugar  and  salts. 
See  analysis,  page  220.  The  proportion  of  each  of  these  in 
cow's  milk  varies  greatly  according  to  the  breed  of  the 
cows,  their  age,  the  time  since  the  birth  of  the  calf,  the  food, 
etc.  It  should  have  over  three-and-a-half  per  cent,  of  fat. 
Some  dairy  cattle  yield  much  more  than  this.  The  specific 
gravity  should  not  be  less  than  1,028,  nor  more  than  1,036. 
The  average  may  be  given  as  a  little  over  1,030.  If  lower 
than  1,028,  and  the  cream  be  scanty,  we  should  suspect 
adulteration  with  water. 

While  cow's  milk  is  neutral  in  reaction,  human  milk  in 
health  is  alkaline.  The  latter  has  less  albuminous  matter 
and  a  smaller  amount  of  salts  than  the  former.  The  addi- 
tion of  a  little  sugar  and  water  renders  cow's  milk  more  like 
human  milk.  A  little  cream  is  also  needed  with  the 
watered  cow's  milk  unless  that  be  unusually  rich.  The 
milk  of  mares  and  she-asses  resembles  human  milk  more 
than  does  that  of  cows.  That  from  the  last  part  of  a  milk- 
ing is  much  richer  in  cream  than  the  milk  which  comes 
first  from  the  udder. 

Particularly  when  used  for  babes,  milk  should  be  very 
fresh,  from  perfectly  healthy  cows  and  supplied  by  honest 
and  careful  people.  This  is  not  only  because  of  the  con- 
stant danger  of  adulteration,  but  also  because  bacteria  of 
various  kinds  enter  the  milk  unless  the  most  iptelligent  care 
is  exercised.  When  once  in  the  milk,  these  microorganisms 
can  increase  rapidly,  especially  if  the  milk  be  kept  warm. 
These    cause   milk-sugar  to  become    lactic   acid  with  the 


228  FOODS 

formation  of  carbonic  acid  and  other  products.  Lactic 
acid  and  also  other  acids  and  coagulative  ferments  convert 
the  casein  into  cheese  which,  in  the  milk  thus  soured,  sep- 
arates and  carries  nearly  all  of  the  fat  in  its  mass. 

To  prevent  these  undesirable  changes,  the  udder  should 
be  cleansed  before  milking,  and  the  hands  of  the  milker  and 
the  pail  or  other  receiver  should  be  very  clean.  The  milk- 
ing must  be  carried  out  with  the  strictest  cleanliness.  At  no 
time  during  or  after  the  process  should  dirt  be  allowed  to 
enter  the  milk.  Observing  these  precautions  and  cooling 
the  milk  as  soon  as  possible,  the  danger  of  contamination 
and  rapid  spoiling  is  removed. 

Disease  germs  usually  get  into  milk  because  of  the  use  of 
bad  water  for  adulteration  or  for  rinsing  out  pails,  cans,  etc. 
Carelessness  allows  harmful  bacteria  to  enter  in  other  ways. 
Numerous  cases  are  reported  where  typhoid  fever,  cholera, 
scarlet  fever,  foot-and-mouth  disease  or  other  disorders  have 
been  caused  by  the  use  of  infected  milk. 

Of  the  various  disease  bacteria  that  can  live  in  milk,  the 
most  notable  are  those  of  tuberculosis.  Many  dairy  cows 
have  this  disease.  Milk  being  produced  in  part  by  a  break- 
ing down  of  the  cells  of  the  milk  glands,  the  bacilli  of  tuber- 
culosis are  often  carried  into  the  milk  from  unrecognized 
cases  of  this  disease.  The  udder  of  a  tuberculous  cow 
reveals  to  the  touch  a  notable  hardening  and  enlargement 
of  a  portion  (or  portions)  of  it.  It  is  rare  that  all  of  the 
udder  is  thus  affected.  It  is  every  year  becoming  more  and 
more  certain  that  the  germs  of  tuberculous  consumption 
can  enter  the  human  system  through  the  use  of  such  milk. 

The  best  (laboratory)  means  of  recognizing  the  presence 
of  the  peculiar  bacilli  is  to  inoculate  some  of  the  doubtful 
milk  into  guinea-pigs.  These  animals  are  very  sensitive  to 
the  disease  and  die  from  it  if  the  milk  contain  many  of  the 
bacilli.  In  the  organs  of  the  dead  guinea-pig,  these  typical 
bacilli  can  then  be  found  in  great  numbers. 


EXAMINATION    OF    MILK 


229 


To  ascertain  the  number  of  ordinary  bacteria  present,  we  take  up  a 
drop  of  the  milk  by  means  of  a  heat-sterilized  pipette.  We  can  still 
further  divide  this  drop  by  mixing  it  with  a  measured  amount  of  water 
that  has  been  sterilized  by  boiling.  The  drop  of  milk  is  added  to  some 
of  the  usual  sterile  nutrient  gelatine  (spoken  of  in  the  chapter  on 
Bacteria)  in  the  bottom  of  a  test-tube.  This  gelatine  is  softened  by 
previous  gentle  warming  and  is  agitated  slightly  so  as  to  mix  into  it 
the  milk.  Then  the  test-tube,  closed  with  the  usual  cotton  plug, 
is  left  to  lie  nearly  level  on  its  side  in  a  shaded  place  that  is  not  warm. 

If  more  than  500  "colonies"  of  bacteria  appear  from  the  original 
drop,  the  milk  is  not  of  high  quality  as  regards  freshness  or  cleanli- 
ness. Low-grade  city  milk  may  have  more  than  a  thousand  times  as 
many  germs  as  that  in  each  drop.  Such  inferior  milk  is  undesirable, 
even  when  cooked.  Occasionally  a  potent  organic  poison  {tyrotoxicon) 
occurs  in  bad  milk,  as  also  in  cheese  and  ice-cream 
made  from  such  milk.  This  poison  is  due  to  the  ac- 
tion of  some  bacteria. 

Skim  milk,  best  obtained  by  rapid  removal  of  nearly 
all  of  the  cream  through  use  of  centrifugal  separators, 
is  a  very  cheap  albuminous  food.  It  however  may 
have  much  less  than  half  of  one  per  cent,  of  fat.  This 
makes  it  an  imperfect  food,  and  children  fed  with  it 
should  have  fat  besides.  Unsterilized  water  is  also 
added  at  times  to  the  original  milk  from  which  such 
skim  milk  is  derived.  (See  Cornell  University  Agri- 
cultural Bulletin,  No.  39,  1892.)  This  water  intro- 
duces the  danger  of  contamination.  If  no  water  be 
added,  the  removal  of  the  cream  causes  the  specific 
gravity  to  be  as  high  as  1,035  or  1.038. 

For  ordinary  purposes,  we  can  sufficiently  well  de- 
tect the  adulteration  of  milk  by  using  a  lactometer  in- 
dicating the  specific  gravity  of  the  fluid  in  which  it 
floats.  (See  Fig.  40.)  It  is  adjusted  to  60°  F.,  and 
should  have  a  scale  that  is  accurate  from  1,025  to 
1,040.  This  need  not  cost  much  more  than  half  a 
dollar.  At  the  same  time,  a  creamometer  should  be  used.  This  is  an 
upright  graduated  glass  tube  two  inches  or  more  across  and  in  which 
the  milk  is  to  stand  for  36  hours  or  more  at  the  average  comfortable 
room  temperature.  Yet  cream  rises  more  rapidly  if  the  temperature  of 
the  milk  be  quickly  lowered  and  kept  low  (40°  F.)  for  hours. 

The  creamometer  scale  being  arranged  in  hundredths  (the  zero  at 


Fig.  40. 


230  FOODS 

the  top  and  the  hundred  at  the  bottom),  a  good  milk  should  yield  at 
least  ten  per  cent,  of  cream.  If  t\uj  of  cream  rise  to  the  top  of  the 
standing  tube  of  milk,  that  indicates  a  little  less  than  3^  per  cent,  of 
fat  in  the  milk,  too  of  cream  mean  nearly  4^  per  cent,  of  fat,  which  is 
a  high  proportion.  The  Soxhlet  and  other  methods  requiring  labora- 
tory facilities  are  to  be  employed  when  very  exact  results  are  called  for. 
Bulletin  No.  13,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1887,  also  the  fourth 
annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  New  York  State,  may  be 
referred  to  for  further  details. 

No  chemicals  should  be  added  to  milk  except  upon  medical  approval. 
Salicylic  acid,  the  most  objectionable  preservative  chemical  added 
(usually  in  ihe  strength  of  one-twentieth  of  one  per  cent.)  is  detected 
by  the  production  of  a  purple  or  violet  color  on  the  addition  of  a  few 
drops  of  chloride  of  iron.  For  the  test,  it  is  best  to  remove  the  casein 
and  fat  by  the  use  of  sulphuric  acid,  then  to  filter  and  shake  the  filtrate 
with  ether.  This  ether  is  then  poured  off,  evaporated,  and  the  residue 
tested  with  the  iron  chloride. 

Soda  is  often  used  to  lessen  the  acidity  of  soured  milk.  Yet  it  favors 
the  increase  of  bacteria,  and  the  milk  dealer  should  not  use  it.  It 
causes  milk  that  is  long  cooked  to  become  darker  by  the  change  of 
milk-sugar  into  caramel.  Milk  that  shows  an  acid  reaction  on  standing 
a  while  in  a  room  of  ordinary  temperature  is  not  suitable  for  feeding 
young  children. 

Since  bacteria  thrive  so  well  in  milk  and  rapidly  spoil  it, 
heat  is  much  used  to  kill  these  microorganisms  and  thus 
"  sterilize  "  the  milk.  All  proper  condensed  milk  has  under- 
gone this  process  to  a  sufficient  extent.  Any  disease  bacteria 
that  are  liable  to  be  in  milk  die  in  a  minute  if  the  milk  be 
heated  to  the  boiling  point.  Even  the  temperature  of  165° 
F.  will  have  the  same  salutary  effect  if  the  milk,  in  which 
these  disease  germs  are,  be  kept  at  this  degree  of  heat  for 
ten  minutes.  P asteurizatio7i  of  milk  is  a  valuable  process. 
It  is  explained  later,  in  the  chapter  upon  Bacteria. 

A  higher  heat,  and  that  much  more  prolonged,  is  needed 
to  destroy  the  various  bacteria  that  cause  souring  and  other 
changes.  If,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  milk  have  hay  dust 
and  bits  of  manure  present,  hours  may  be  required  for  the 
boiling  to  have  killed  all   bacteria.     When  all  bacteria  in 


STERILIZED    MILK  23 T 

the  milk  (and  in  its  container)  are  destroyed  and  it  is  so 
protected  that  no  other  bacteria  can  enter,  the  milk  will 
keep  for  an  indefinite  period.  The  more  strictly  clean  the 
milk  is,  the  less  time  is  required  for  sterilizing  it  by  heat. 
The  carefully  managed  milk  establishment  of  Bolle,  in  Ber- 
lin, shows  how  well  the  business  ought  to  be  conducted. 

The  cows  of  the  establishments  that  produce  the  best 
sterilized  milk  are  very  clean.  So,  too,  are  the  hands,  boots 
and  clothing  of  the  milkers.  The  pails  and  other  recepta- 
cles are  cleansed  by  hot  water  or  steam.  Care  is  taken  to 
keep  hay  dust  out  of  the  air.  The  fresh  milk  is  received 
into  the  steamed  receptacles  in  which  it  is  to  undergo  steril- 
ization or  to  be  transported  in  its  unsterilized  state.  Such 
milk  from  healthy  cattle  is,  however,  better  when  unsteril- 
ized and  will  then  keep  much  longer  than  inferior  milk. 

Sterilized  milk  is,  in  the  opinion  of  most  physicians, 
less  digestible  than  good  milk  in  its  fresh,  natural  state. 
The  changes  in  its  casein  and  other  elements  and  the  partial 
precipitation  of  lime  salts  make  the  cooked  milk  a  less  satis- 
factory food.  Yet,  because  of  the  bacteria  that  are  swarm- 
ing in  low-grade  milk,  it  is  generally  well  to  recommend 
that  milk  be  boiled  in  summer  unless  fresh  and  of  unques- 
tionable purity.  On  carefully  sterilized  milk,  children  can 
be  reared  very  successfully,  even  from  birth.  Yet  fresh, 
pure  milk  is  better,  just  as  human  milk,  if  healthy,  is  the 
best  food   of  all  for  babes. 

For  home  sterilizing  of  milk,  it  is  well  to  recommend 
small,  clean  bottles  standing  in  a  wire  rack  or  basket.  After 
the  bottles  are  filled,  their  mouths  are  plugged  with  cotton. 
Then  they  are  heated  in  steamers  of  any  kind  or  in  hot 
water  (at  a  temperature  of  i8o°  F.  or  more)  for  half  an 
hour.  After  this,  the  milk  should  be  cooled  unless  to  be 
used  very  soon.  With  this  brief  heating,  ordinary  milk  will 
not  keep  long. 

It  would  be  well  if  the  milk  inspectors  of  cities  could 


232  FOODS 

supervise  the  dairies  and  cattle-stables  that  supply  milk.  In 
nearly  all  of  our  cities,  dangers  to  health  exist  in  the  shape 
of  crowded,  filthy  stables  and  sheds  where  diseased  cows, 
feeding  on  the  refuse  of  distilleries,  vinegar  works,  etc., 
furnish  milk  that  finds  ready  sale  among  thousands  of 
families. 

In  Chicago,  New  Jersey  and  elsewhere  recent  extensive 
movements  have  begun  to  improve  these  unhealthful  condi- 
tions. The  Boston  milk-inspection  law  is  one  of  the  best. 
It  is  important  that  cattle  have  daylight  supplied  them.  At 
least  as  much  as  one  thousand  cubic  feet  of  space  should  be 
allowed  for  each  animal.     That  is  a  very  scanty  allowance. 

Koumiss  is  an  alcoholic  drink  which  some  pastoral  tribes 
of  oriental  lands  prepare  by  causing  the  milk  of  mares  to 
ferment  through  the  introduction,  into  the  milk,  of  certain 
kinds  of  bacteria  and  yeast.  Among  us  a  similar  beverage 
is  made  from  cows'  milk  to  which  a  little  cane-sugar  is  added 
and  then  common  yeast  planted  in  it.  [See  "The  Fermen- 
tations of  Milk,"  by  Conn,  1892,  issued  by  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture.]  Such  fermented  milk  is  furnished  under 
various  names  energetically  advertised. 

By  the  conversion  of  some  of  the  sugar,  more  than  one 
per  cent,  of  alcohol  is  present  in  these  preparations.  The 
casein  of  the  original  milk  is  somewhat  changed  (peptonized) 
and  is  in  much  finer  lumps  than  in  ordinary  coagulated  milk. 
Although  some  people  dislike  and  cannot  tolerate  these 
preparations,  others  find  them  agreeable  and  apparently  of 
some  nutritive  value.  Yet  all  impartial  analyses  show  that 
"  koumiss "  is  not  sufficient  for  exclusive  nutrition  of  the 
body. 

Butter  is  chiefly  composed  of  the  fat  of  milk,  the  casein 
around  the  globules  of  fat  being  broken  away  by  churning  and 
these  very  many  minute  fat  globules  being  then  compressed 
into  large  masses.  With  the  fat  of  butter  is  a  varying,  small 
percentage  of  water  and  a  small  amount  of  the  other  milk 


BUTTER    AND    CHEESE  233 

elements.  (See  analysis,  page  220.)  These  make  it  a  fertile 
soil  for  bacteria  to  thrive  in,  and  millions  of  these  may  be 
found  in  an  acorn-sized  piece  of  ordinary  uncooked  butter. 
Disease-producing  bacteria  can  remain  alive  in  and  on  it  for 
days.  Hence  the  origin  and  cleanly  treatment  of  this,  as  of 
other  dairy  products,  are  of  great  importance. 

Butter  of  good  quality  is  an  agreeable  and  wholesome  fat, 
yet  it  is  costly  as  compared  with  the  other  fat  foods.  Good 
olive  oil,  even,  can  be  bought  by  the  gallon  in  our  large 
cities  for  less  than  the  price  of  its  equivalent  of  the  best 
butter.  Much  refined  cotton-seed  oil  is  used  for  adulterat- 
ing and  imitating  butter. 

Artificial  butter  [oleomargarine)  is  made  in  immense  quan- 
tities ;  but  this  product  is  largely  driven  out  of  the  market 
owing  to  the  present  unjustly  severe  laws.  The  best  of  it  is 
more  wholesome  than  some  of  the  stuff  which  is  sold  as 
genuine  butter.  Whenever  this  artificial  butter  is  allowed  to 
be  made,  the  process  of  manufacture  should  be  carefully 
controlled  ;  for  sufficient  heat  is  not  always  employed  in 
making  this.  Unprincipled  people  may  use  inferior  or 
refuse  fats  and  cheap  vegetable  oils.  The  product  is  then 
unwholesome. 

Cheese  gives  a  very  concentrated  nutriment  which  is 
comparatively  cheap.  It  is  prepared  by  causing  rennet  or 
acid  to  precipitate  the  casein  of  milk,  and  this  carries  with 
it  the  fat.  In  such  varieties  as  Neuchatel  cheese  and 
cream  cheese,  extra  cream  is  present.  Parmesan  cheese  and 
"  skim-milk  cheese  "  have  had  some  of  the  cream  removed 
from  the  milk  before  the  cheese-making  began.  Delicate 
flavors  in  cheese  depend  upon  refinements  and  great  care  in 
manufacturing.  Some  are  due  altogether  to  the  milk  com- 
ing from  special  pastures.  From  skim-milk,  to  which  cheap 
fats  have  been  added  after  being  sterilized  and  deodorized 
by  long  steaming,  successful  imitations  of  good  cheese  are 
made  in  various  portions  of  the  United  States. 


234 


FOODS 


All  the  remarks  made  above  regarding  the  need  of  care 
and  cleanliness  in  obtaining,  handling  and  treating  dairy- 
products,  apply  also  to  cheese.  If  decomposed  by  bacteria, 
it  may  develop  the  organic  poison  mentioned  in  speaking  of 
milk.  The  outer  part  is  the  most  unclean,  and  may  con- 
tain lead  (from  tinfoil)  and  other  metals.  Cheese  should 
not  in  any  case  be  eaten  to  the  extent  of  more  than  seven 
ounces  in  a  day.  For  those  with  whom  it  agrees,  it  makes 
an  excellent  addition  to  a  starchy  diet  such  as  hominy  or 
bread.  The  belief  that  small  quantities  of  cheese  may  then 
aid  the  digestion  of  other  foods,  seems  well  founded. 

Cereal  foods  have  considerable  similarity  of  composi- 
tion. Outside  of  all  grains  of  wheat,  etc.,  is  a  firm  layer 
of  indigestible  woody  substance,  silica  and  other  elements. 
The  inner  part  of  these  grains  consists  almost  entirely  of 
starch  cells.  Next  to  the  starch  and  between  it  and  the 
tough  outside  layers  is  the  gluten  (albuminous)  layer.  In 
milling,  the  starch  readily  pulverizes  into  flour  of  the  whitest 
sort.  The  outer  parts  of  the  grain  form  bran,  which  is 
tough  and  indigestible.  So  it  is  not  desirable  that  this  remain 
in  the  flour.     (For  composition  of  wheat,  see  page  220.) 

Very  white  flour,  such  as  that  made  from  winter  wheat, 
is  preferable  for  pastry,  yet  has  less  of  the  albuminous  ele- 
ment, gluten.  Spring-wheat  flour  is  yellower  because  it  has 
more  gluten,  and  this  makes  the  flour  have  a  greater  nutri- 
tive value.  Until  the  introduction  among  us  of  the  Hun- 
garian (high-milling)  process,  in  1873,  fine  white  flour  could 
not  be  produced  from  spring  wheat.  A  bushel  of  wheat, 
weighing  sixty  pounds,  yields  a  little  less  than  three-fourths 
its  weight  of  white  flour. 

If,  for  the  sake  of  its  superior  nutritive  value,  all  the 
gluten  is  kept  in  the  flour,  it  should  be  thoroughly  pulver- 
ized in  milling,  as  otherwise  it  is  not  well  absorbed.  The 
indigestible,  branny  elements  of  the  outside  of  the  grain,  if 
present  in  the  flour,  interfere  greatly  with  the  absorption, 


BREAD  235 

into  the  system,  of  the  starch  and  all  other  elements  of 
cooked  flour  or  bread.  For  porridge,  "  stirabout,"  etc.,  it 
is  well  that  the  crushed  wheat,  oatmeal  or  flour  used  should 
be  quite  finely  ground  up  in  milling,  if  the  full  nutritive 
value  be  desired. 

In  order  that  such  foods  be  well  digested,  it  is  necessary 
to  cook  them  so  as  to  rupture  the  envelopes  of  the  minute 
cells  which  contain  the  starch  and  other  substances.  Bread 
is  the  most  common  form  in  which  we  use  these  foods. 
Gluten  must  be  in  the  flour  in  order  that  the  well-kneaded 
dough-mass,  into  which  the  flour  is  made,  may  hold  together 
and  "  rise  "  when  bubbles  of  gas  are  formed  in  the  dough- 
mass  and  expand  it.  Flour  made  from  wheat  or  rye  is  pre- 
ferred for  bread-making,  as  these  grains  have  much  gluten. 
These  flours  may  be  mixed  with  other,  less  glutinous,  flours 
if  desired.  The  most  commonly  used  gas  for  raising  dough 
is  carbonic  dioxide,  which  is  there  harmless. 

This  gas  is  usually  produced  by  the  action  of  a  small  amount  of 
yeast  thoroughly  worked  into  the  dough  by  kneading.  At  an  overwarm 
room  temperature  (between  77°  F.  and  95°  F.)  the  diastatic  ferment 
contained  in  the  flour  effects  the  conversion  of  a  small  portion  of  the 
starch  into  dextrine  and  maltose.  Under  the  influence  of  the  warmth 
these  substances  are  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours  further  converted  into 
lactic  and  butyric  acids  by  the  living  yeast  cells  present.  Besides  other 
products  of  this  fermentation,  some  alcohol  is  formed  and  also  much 
carbonic  dioxide,  which  is  evenly  distributed  throughout  the  loaf  if  the 
dough  has  been  well  kneaded. 

By  means  of  an  oven  heated  to  more  than  390°  F.,  the  bread  is  then 
baked.  The  gas  thereby  expands,  but  the  resistance  of  the  firm  crust 
formed  keeps  this  gas  and  most  of  the  water  from  escaping.  The  crust 
is  due  to  the  action  of  the  heat  in  coagulating  the  albumen  of  the  gluten, 
which  also  in  part  forms  a  new  combination  with  the  starch.  The  heat 
of  baking  causes  the  conversion  of  a  portion  of  the  starch  into  dextrine 
and  other  very  digestible  forms  of  carbohydrates.  This  occurs  espe- 
cially in  the  brown  crust.     Bread  is  in  most  cases  insufficiently  baked. 

As  a  substitute  for  yeast,  older  "sourdough"  (kept  over  for  the 
purpose)  may  be  worked  into  the  dough  and  be  made  to  act  as  a  leaven 


236  FOODS 

for  "  raising  "  the  mass.  This  sour  leaven  gets  its  sourness  from  lactic 
and  acetic  acids  formed  when  it  is  kept  over  and  due  to  the  presence 
of  numerous  microorganisms  capable  of  inducing  a  fermentation  some- 
what different  from  that  caused  by  pure  yeast. 

These  fermentative  processes  cause  the  chemical  conversion  of  from 
1.5  to  3  per  cent,  of  the  starch.  There  are  some  w^ho  fancy  such  pro- 
cesses to  be  objectionable  and  who  advocate  the  use  of  commercially 
produced  gases  introduced  into  the  bread,  instead  of  using  yeast.  No 
wholly  satisfactory  substitute  for  yeast,  as  a  leavening  agent,  has  yet 
been  produced. 

It  may  here  be  said  that  the  high  heat  of  the  baking 
oven,  maintained  for  less  even  than  the  usual  time  of  an 
hour,  surely  kills  the  yeast  cells  and  any  other  living  micro- 
organisms that  in  any  way  chance  to  get  into  the  dough. 
Yet  bread,  especially  when  moist,  furnishes  a  fertile  soil 
for  the  growth  and  transportation  of  various  sorts  of  micro- 
organisms that  may  come  from  the  air,  from  unclean  hands, 
etc.  During  the  European  epidemic  of  1892-93,  numerous 
cases  of  cholera  were  traced  to  the  eating  of  bread  and 
other  foods  infected  by  careless  people. 

Instead  of  using  yeast  for  raising  dough,  the  desired  gas 
can  be  produced  when  an  alkali,  such  as  bicarbonate  of 
soda,  is  well  mixed  through  the  dry  flour,  and  then  suffi- 
cient acid  is  added  in  the  water  which  we  mix  with  this  dry 
flour  to  make  a  dough.  Almost  any  acid  of  pure  quality 
may  be  used  to  bring  about  this  chemical  reaction  and  thus 
produce  the  desired  carbonic  dioxide  gas.  The  various 
baking-pOTvders  furnish  these  (acid  and  alkaline)  chemi- 
cal substances  mixed  in  suitable  proportions  ;  but  more  than 
a  third  of  all  the  baking-powders  sold  in  America  are  esti- 
mated to  be  compounded  of  harmful  chemicals  ! 

The  safest  and  best  acid  ingredient  for  these  is  good 
cream  of  tartar  (commercial  bitartrate  of  potash).  Carbo- 
nate of  ammonia  is  less  desirable,  yet  is  permissible.  The 
use  of  bi-sulphate  of  potash  is  undesirable  because  of  the 
purgative  tendency  of  the  salts  produced  in  making  the 


BAKING-POWDER — BREAD  237 

bread.  Baking-powders  containing  alum  or  alum-phosphate 
are  objectionable  and  ought  to  be  prohibited. 

Since  nearly  one  hundred  million  pounds  of  baking-pow- 
ders are  presumably  consumed  every  year  in  North  America, 
it  is  proper  here  to  indicate  that  this  very  important  subject 
can  be  further  studied  in  part  in  elaborate  reports  issued  by 
the  Canadian  Inland  Revenue  Department,  and  by  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture.  All  baking-powders  should, 
under  penalty,  be  required  to  have  their  composition  indi- 
cated by  an  accurate  label  attached  to  every  package  sold. 

In  general,  baking-powder  may  be  said  to  be  less  health- 
ful than  yeast  for  bread-making.  The  addition  of  a  little 
salt  and  also  of  milk  improves  the  quality  of  bread.  High- 
grade  wheat  produces  bread  of  better  quality  than  comes 
from  inferior  grain.  There  is  very  little  or  no  adulteration 
of  flour  with  inferior  substitutes.  Such  things  usually  cost 
more  than  flour.  Potato  starch  is  added  to  bread  by  some 
bakers. 

The  use  of  diseased  grain  and  of  salts  of  copper,  zinc, 
etc.,  to  rehabilitate  bad  flour  seems  very  rare  among  bakers. 
Lead-poisoning  may  be  feared  where  that  metal  has  been 
used  to  fill  up  flaws  in  mill-stones.  The  presence  of  alum 
in  bread  is  always  undesirable.  Alum  in  any  considerable 
amount  is  recognized  by  moistening  well  the  suspected 
bread  or  flour  with  logwood  water  (made  by  steeping  log- 
wood chips  thoroughly  in  pure,  soft  water  that  has  been 
boiled,  or  preferably  distilled).  Alum  in  bread  thus  tested 
causes  a  bluish  or  lavender  color. 

Old  bread  loses  water  and  becomes  dryer  ;  yet  the  crust 
becomes  more  moist  at  first.  New  bread  is  wholesome  if 
not  so  moist  as  to  be  clammy.  It  is  best  when  dried  by 
heat  and  then  toasted  slightly  over  coals  or  above  a  hot 
stove.  Much  of  the  starch  is  thereby  converted  into  dex- 
trine and  thus  rendered  more  easily  digestible. 

Wheat-flour  and  water,  mixed  to  a  thin,  unleavened  dough 


238  FOODS 

and  then  baked,  make  a  very  nutritious  food,  as  seen  in  the 
form  of  the  various  "crackers,"  biscuit,  cakes,  etc.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  very  simple  pudding,  such  as  "  duff," 
etc.,  if  not  very  moist  and  soggy  and  thereby  less  digestible. 
Pastry  and  other  "  rich  "  foods  are  more  or  less  indigesti- 
ble owing  to  the  excess  of  fat  through  all  parts  and  sur- 
rounding the  otherwise  nutritious  vegetable  cells.  Macaroni 
and  "  nudels  "  make  a  valuable  food  ;  when  eggs  are  used  in 
their  preparation,  these  foods  may  be  regarded  as  having 
nearly  as  much  nutritive  value  as  meat. 

Indian  corn  (or  maize)  is  the  most  used  of  the  other 
cereal  foods.  The  meal  (and  also  hominy)  made  of  it  needs 
to  be  cooked  long  and  well.  If  made  with  milk  into  "  mush," 
it  is  like  the  \\dX\2iXi  polenta.  If  cheese  be  eaten  with  this, 
a  complete  food  is  had  at  a  very  low  price.  The  ''  hog-and- 
hominy  "  of  the  Southern  States  may  also  be  considered  a 
fairly  complete  food.  Johnny-cake,  corn-pone,  corn-bread, 
tortilla,  and  other  cornmeal  products  are  excellent  foods, 
yet  incomplete.  They  need  the  albumen  and  fat  of  a  Uttle 
meat  added  in  order  to  make  a  proper  diet. 

Rice  is  a  similar  starchy  food,  having  less  albumen  and 
much  less  fat.  It  is  very  digestible  when  simply  cooked. 
In  this  and  in  such  bland  and  purely  starchy  foods  as  sago 
and  tapioca,  boiling  causes  the  starch  cells  to  swell  up  and 
burst,  taking  in  from  four  to  six  times  their  weight  of 
water. 

Potatoes  are  very  valuable  as  furnishing  a  palatable 
starchy  food  at  an  extremely  low  cost.  Being  very  deficient 
in  albumen  and  fats,  potatoes  furnish  only  an  incomplete 
food.  They  require  to  be  cooked  quickly  and  well  with 
good  heat.  If  boiled,  they  should  not  be  peeled  till  after 
they  are  cooked.  They  are  made  less  digestible  if  butter 
or  other  fat  is  mixed  or  melted  into  them. 

Beet-roots  have  considerable  sugar,  and  carrots  and 
parsnips  have  nearly  as  much.     The  usual  edible  roots  as 


VEGETABLES  239 

well  as  other  vegetables  and  "  garden  truck  "  have  compara- 
tively little  nutritive  value  for  human  beings.  Their  salts 
and  stimulating  flavors  are  what  recommend  them  most. 
Of  these  vegetables,  cabbages  are  perhaps  the  most  impor- 
tant. They  should  be  very  thoroughly  cooked.  Their 
comparative  chemical  value  is  shown  on  page  220. 

If  eaten  raw  and  unclean,  vegetables  may  be  the  means 
of  introducing  tapeworms  and  other  parasites  into  the 
digestive  canal.  Hence  lettuce,  radishes  and  other  salad 
eaten  raw  must  be  very  carefully  cleansed.  The  health 
value  of  such  vegetables  is  often  overestimated.  Cucum- 
bers, fresh  or  pickled,  may,  like  these  others,  be  mentioned 
as  being  quite  innutritions  and  needed  only  for  capricious 
appetites.  They  serve  however  to  increase  the  bulk  of  the 
excrement  and,  by  irritation  of  the  bowel,  appear  to  lessen 
constipation.  Green  peas  and  string  beans  have  somewhat 
more  nutritive  value  than  other  ordinary  green  vegetables. 
Onions  and  garlic  are  not  to  be  recommended  as  either  very 
digestible  or  very  nutritious. 

In  view  of  the  prevalent  idea  that  tomatoes,  when  eaten, 
cause  cancer,  it  ought  to  be  stated  that  they  neither  provoke 
the  disease  nor  are  they  in  any  way  injurious  to  people  in 
whom  cancer  is  already  developed.  Tomatoes  are  whole- 
some and  agreeable  to  most  persons.  It  is  well  that  the 
peeling  always  be  removed.  These  vegetables  are  prefer- 
able when  cooked.  They  lose  none  of  their  salts  or  other 
nutritive  substance  by  being  canned. 

An  excellent,  simple  way  of  detecting  the  presence  of 
copper  used  in  poisonous  quantities  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
a  green  color  to  vegetables,  that  are  "  put  up  "  in  bottles  or 
canned,  is  to  leave,  for  a  short  time,  a  bright  steel  surface 
(such  as  a  polished  knitting  needle  or  a  penknife  blade)  in 
the  fluid  that  the  peas  or  other  vegetables  have  been  stand- 
ing in  within  the  can.  Copper,  if  present,  is  then  visibly 
deposited  upon  the  steel  surface.     Tin  may  be  present,  but 


240  FOODS 

is  not  poisonous  in  small  quantities.  Lead,  however,  is 
dangerous  when  present.  The  test  for  these  metals  is  given 
on  pages  252  and  253. 

Fruits  and  berries  contain  varying,  small  amounts  of 
nutritive  substances,  chiefly  sugar,  with  some  salts  and 
much  water.  They  tend  to  stimulate  the  appetite,  yet  dis- 
agree with  some  people.  Strawberries  may  be  quite  unclean 
by  reason  of  the  presence  of  soil  bacteria.  Dried,  preserved 
or  canned  fruit  contain  all  the  important  nutriment  that 
was  in  the  fresh  fruit  of  which  they  were  made.  Canned 
fruit  and  other  foods  should  be  promptly  removed  from 
the  can  when  it  is  opened.  Rubber  rings  used  for  preserve 
jars  and  bottles  should  be  soft,  elastic  and  light  enough  to 
float  on  water.  Antimony  is  present  in  much  red  rubber. 
Red  lead  may  also  occur,  and  zinc  is  almost  always  present 
in  gray  rubber  rings  and  similar  articles. 

Mushrooms  contain  considerable  nutriment,  but  are 
used  almost  altogether  for  their  delicate  flavor,  to  afford  a 
relish  to  other  foods.  There  is  no  reliable  chemical  means 
of  recognizing  the  poisonous  character  of  certain  mush- 
rooms. In  general,  the  highly  colored  ones  are  poisonous. 
Among  the  more  accessible  of  the  books  illustrating  limita- 
tions of  the  above  rule  may  be  mentioned  an  article  by  Dr. 
Taylor  reprinted  from  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
report  for  1890.  Also  a  New  York  State  publication  for 
1893. 

Bananas  are  all  the  time  becoming  more  and  more 
cultivated  in  our  Southern  States  and  elsewhere.  Thirteen 
million  bunches  are  imported  into  the  United  States  yearly. 
Besides  furnishing  a  valuable  food,  one  acre  planted  with 
banana  or  plantain  yields  more  than  300  pounds  of  fibres 
from  which  a  fine,  muslin-like  cloth  is  manufactured.  The 
nutritive  value  of  bananas  is  considerable,  as  can  be  seen 
from  the  analysis  on  page  220.  The  hydrocarbon  elements 
consist  largely  of  sugars. 


VEGETABLE    FOODS — FOOD-ACCESSORIES  24I 

In  hot  countries,  various  vegetable  oils  become  an  im- 
portant addition  to  foods,  in  place  of  animal  fats.  The 
high  value  of  the  olive  may  here  be  indicated.  As  an 
adulterant  of  other  oils  and  of  lard,  cotton-seed  oil  when 
refined  is  very  extensively  used.  Although  inferior  in  nearly 
every  way,  cotton-seed  oil  has  not  yet  been  shown  to  be 
unhealthful. 

Dried  peas,  beans  and  others  of  the  foods  called 
leguminous  have  more  than  twice  as  much  albumen  as  is 
found  in  the  cereal  foods.  They  are  also  rich  in  carbo- 
hydrates. Hence  they  appear  to  furnish  a  very  nutritious 
food  when  fat  is  eaten  with  them,  as  in  the  form  of  "  pork 
and  beans  "  or  bacon  and  peas.  Yet  these  are  not  wholly 
satisfactory,  although  dried  peas  and  beans  are  often 
recommended  in  dietaries  (because  of  their  having  more 
chemical  food  value  than  meat).  Their  use  is  somewhat 
limited,  owing  partly  to  the  fact  that  they  cannot  so  easily 
be  well  cooked  as  other  foods.  Furthermore,  their  albu- 
men, although  equally  absorbable  and  quite  as  nutritive  as 
the  gluten  of  wheat- flour,  is  in  the  form  of  legumin.  Since 
this  is  not  like  gluten  in  adhesiveness,  pea  meal  and  bean 
meal  are  not  fit  for  bread-making. 

Salt  is  required  with  all  vegetables.  Fortunately,  its 
cheapness  does  not  encourage  adulteration.  The  frequent 
addition  of  sulphuric  acid  or  hydrochloric  acid  to  vinegar  is 
harmful  only  because  very  impure  acids  are  apt  to  be  used 
for  the  purpose  by  the  unscrupulous  dealers.  Mustard  (like 
pepper  and  other  spices)  is  very  often  adulterated. 

Here,  as  with  other  foods,  the  use  of  the  compound 
microscope  (magnifying  from  40  to  150  times)  is  a  valuable 
aid,  a  minute  amount  of  various  unquestionably  pure  speci- 
mens and  also  of  any  probable  adulterants  being  used  as 
checks  and  guides  under  the  microscope  lens.  Comparing 
the  suspected  specimen  with  these,  a  definite  determination 
of  its  purity  or  impurity  is  easy. 
16 


242  FOODS 

Stimulants  and  Sedatives 

Tobacco  contains  various  complex  elements  and  notably 
nicotine.  This  is  a  colorless,  nitrogenous,  alkaloidal  poison 
which,  when  not  combined  with  acids,  is  rather  volatile. 
Nicotine,  with  an  aromatic  oil  of  tobacco  and  some  bases 
formed  in  burning,  causes  the  familiar  nausea,  vertigo  and 
depression  occasioned  by  the  use  of  tobacco.  Habitual 
users  of  it  lose  much  of  their  susceptibility  to  these  unpleas- 
ant effects,  and  then  its  agreeable  excitant  or  sedative  in- 
fluence is  experienced.  From  prolonged,  excessive  use  and 
by  swallowing  it,  tobacco  causes  indigestion  and  also  inflam- 
mation of  the  exposed  mucous  membranes  of  the  throat  and 
other  parts. 

Over-use  of  strong  tobacco  tends  to  impair  the  nutrition, 
especially  of  the  nerves  ;  so  that,  for  example,  enfeebled  and 
irregular  action  of  the  heart  occurs  ("tobacco  heart,"  "trot- 
ting heart  ").  The  vision  may  also  be  affected.  Color- 
blindness and,  in  extreme  cases,  serious  nervous  diseases 
may  be  caused  by  this  widely  used  poi§on.  On  the  whole, 
the  use  of  tobacco,  even  in  moderation,  is  harmful  as  regards 
its  final  effects  ;  although  in  favor  of  "  chewing,"  it  may  be 
said  that  tobacco  has  a  slight  antiseptic  value. 

Pipes  with  long  stems  that  are  frequently  cleaned,  and 
especially  the  "  hookahs  "  or  water-pipes  used  by  orientals, 
are  preferable  to  cigars  or  short-stemmed  pipes.  The  highest- 
priced  cigars  do  not  necessarily  have  any  less  nicotine  than 
the  cheaper  brands.  The  inhalation  of  tobacco  smoke  is  a 
pernicious  habit,  as  practised  by  habitual  smokers  of  cigar- 
ettes ;  it  can,  however,  afford  relief  to  asthmatic  people. 

Coffee  and  tea,  as  consumed  in  beverages,  contain  little 
or  no  nutriment.  The  sugar  and  milk,  commonly  taken  at 
the  same  time,  are  of  course  to  be  considered  as  nutritious 
foods.  Theifie  (in  tea)  and  caffeine  (in  coffee)  are  alkaloidal 
substances  giving  to  these  their  peculiar  qualities.  When 
used  in  small  quantities,  these  serve  as  excitants  to  stimulate 


COFFEE    AND    TEA 


243 


the  tired  energies.  If  used  in  large  quantities,  they  tend  to 
injure  the  nervous  system.  This  was  very  emphatically 
stated  by  Hahnemann  many  years  ago. 

The  ancient  view,  that  these  drugs  lessened  the  need  for 
food  or  that  they  even  improved  nutrition,  is  incompatible 
with  the  most  recent  scientific  knowledge.  Coffee  and  tea 
add  nothing  to  the  real  strength  of  the  system.  There  are 
times  when  such  stimulants  are  (like  their  near  relative, 
alcohol)  of  use  in 
producing  work  by 
inciting  the  system 
to  further  waste. 
In  favor  of  tea  and 
coffee  it  may  be  said 
that  they  lessen  the 
craving  for  alcohol 
and  are  very  slow 
in  producing  harm- 
ful effects  if  used  in 
great  moderation. 
The  astringent 
principle,  tannin,  is 
considerably  less 
abundant  in  black 
teas  than  in  Japan 
teas  and  green  teas. 

Fig.  41,  originally 
in  Money's  work 
on  Tea  Cuitivatio7t, 
gives  an  accurate 
idea  of  the  proper  shape  and  appearance  of  tea-leaves. 
By  comparison  with  this,  the  genuineness  of  a  given  speci- 
men may  be  determined.  Spurious  teas  are  not  at  all  com- 
mon with  us  ;  yet  exhausted  leaves  are  occasionally  treated 
with  Prussian  blue,  etc.,  and  sold  as  good  tea. 


Fig.  41. 

a,  Flowery  Pekoe  ;  b.  Orange  Pekoe  ;  c,  Pekoe  ; 
d.  Souchong-  ist ;  e.  Souchong  2d  ;  /,  Congou.— a,  b 
(when  mixed),  Pekoe  ;  «,  <5,  c,  d,  e  (when  mixed), 
Pekoe  Souchong. 

If  there  be  another  leaf  below y,  and  it  be  taken, 
it  makes  Bohea. 

Each  of  these  leaves  was  first  a  Flowery  Pekoe 
leaf  (a)  ;  it  then  became  b,  then  c,  and  so  on. 

At  the  base  of  the  leaves  c,  d,  e,/,  exist  buds  i, 
2,  3,  4,  from  which  new  shoots  spring. 


244  FOODS 

Coffee  is  very  extensively  adulterated^  especially  when 
already  ground  by  the  seller.  Even  the  unroasted  coffee- 
beans  are  skilfully  imitated.  A  microscope,  magnifying 
as  much  as  150  times,  is  of  extreme  value  as  an  aid  to 
the  recognition  of  the  exact  character  of  adulterated  coffee 
and  cocoa  products.  For  further  details  and  a  mention  of 
the  sources  of  original  information  concerning  this  subject, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  U.  S.  Agricultural  Department 
Bulletin  No.  13,  1892,  on  tea,  coffee  and  cocoa. 

Cocoa  is  usually  better  than  the  various  "  prepared 
cocoas,"  chocolates,  etc.,  made  from  it  by  the  use  of 
alkalies  and  the  addition  of  wheat-flour  or  sugar  and  too 
often  harmful  chemicals  besides.  "  Digestible  cocoa," 
"  soluble  cocoa  "  and  other  preparations  usually  lack  the 
qualities  that  they  pretend  to  possess,  and  may  contain  mag- 
nesia and  soluble  alkalies.  Simple  finely-ground  cocoa- 
beans,  without  the  husk  or  shell,  have  a  more  delicate  aroma 
and  are  more  healthful  than  most  of  the  vigorously  adver- 
tised preparations.  Good  cocoa  and  chocolate  possess 
gently  stimulant  properties,  similar  to  those  of  tea  and 
coffee,  yet  the  former  are  milder,  and  have  a  considerably 
greater  nutritive  value. 

Alcoholic    Liquors    and   their   Effects 

Alcoholic  beverages  contain  a  varying  percentage  of  alco- 
hol. They  are  commonly  derived  from  fermentations  of 
grains  or  of  sugary  fruits  and  vegetable  juices.  The  stronger 
spirituous  liquors  are  usually  obtained  by  direct  distillation 
from  other  alcoholic  fluids.  The  amount  of  alcohol  present 
in  beers  varies  from  3  per  cent,  in  light  beers  to  over  8J  per 
cent,  (by  volume)  in  strong  ale.  Ordinary  wines  have  from 
5  per  cent,  in  ''  fruit  wines"  (or  even  less  in  ''home-made  " 
wines)  to  15  per  cent,  in  a  very  strong  French  wine.  The 
average  California  wines  (including  champagnes)  have  from 
9 J  to  12  per  cent,  by  volume,  yet  some  have  more  and  some 


ALCOHOLIC    LIQUORS  245 

less  than  these  amounts.  Sherry  Is  usually  "fortified"  by 
the  addition  of  alcohol.  The  American  sherries,  like  the 
foreign  ones,  show  over  16  per  cent,  of  alcohol.  Some 
(genuine)  port  wines  have  more  than  20  per  cent,  of  alcohol ; 
yet  the  American  wines  classed  under  that  name  show  less 
than  that,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  of  the  California 
ones. 

Distilled  and  other  strong  liquors  have  usually  not  far 
from  50  per  cent,  of  alcohol.  All  of  these  differ  greatly  in 
their  quality  according  to  the  substances  from  which  they 
are  produced  and  also  according  to  the  process  employed, 
their  age  and  other  elements.  Great  outlay  of  skill,  study, 
labor  and  means  is  required  to  achieve  the  excellence  of  the 
best  products.  Yet  the  lower-priced  alcoholic  beverages 
such  as,  for  example,  beer  and  rum,  may  be  cheap  and  yet 
not  harmfully  adulterated. 

Alcoholic  beverages  are  often  watered.  Imitations  are 
common,  and  liquors  are  frequently  sold  under  the  repre- 
sentation that  they  are  of  better  quality  than  they  really  are. 
Sulphites  are  often  added  to  wine  for  the  sake  of  preserving 
it.  Salicylic  acid  is  still  more  liable  to  be  found  present. 
This  is  also  often  employed,  as  a  preservative,  in  bottled 
beer.  The  use  of  poisonous  and  other  chemicals  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  hops  is  not  so  common  here  as  is  generally 
assumed.  More  harm  is  liable  to  result  from  the  use  of 
leaden  pipes  and  faucets  for  beer.  Our  American  beers  are 
quite  often  inferior  from  the  substitution  of  glucose  for 
malted  barley  in  the  breweries.  This  cheapening  may  also 
introduce  some  fusel  oil. 

American  wines  seem  freer  from  "  plastering  "  than  many 
European  wines  are.  Our  sweet  wines  are  very  variable.  In 
some  of  these  and  in  some  "  California  port,"  the  chemists 
show  that  very  little  pure  grape-juice  enters.  Cider  is  a 
very  variable  drink  which  usually  has  less  than  six  per  cent. 
of  alcohol.     With  proper  attention  to  cleanliness  and  sort- 


246  FOODS 

ing  the  apples  of  which  it  is  made,  it  can  be  a  much  better 
beverage  than  it  usually  is. 

Fusel  oil  is  the  most  harmful  substance  to  be  feared  in 
spirituous  liquors  of  low  quality,  such  as  "high  wines"  and 
potato  spirits.  Fusel  oil  consists  of  amyl,  butyl  and  propyl 
alcohols,  which  are  less  vaporizable  than  ordinary  (ethylic) 
alcohol.  With  care,  this  dangerous  substance  can  be  pre- 
vented from  being  carried  over  in  the  distilling  process. 
Redistillation,  and  the  changes  taking  place  when  liquors 
are  kept  for  years,  lessen  the  amount  of  fusel  oil  present. 
This  harmful  substance  gives  an  unpleasant  odor  (and 
taste),  which  aids  the  recognition  of  it  when  a  little  is 
caused  to  evaporate  from  the  palm  of  the  hand. 

A  hygienic  estimate  of  alcoholic  beverages  in- 
volves several  considerations  : 

They  are  not  valuable  as  foods,  since  they  contribute  very 
little  nutritive  substance  to  the  system.  Wines  have  a  little 
sugar  and  other  carbohydrates.  Beer  contains  some  albu- 
minous matter  and  a  small  fraction  of  the  amount  of  carbo- 
hydrates present  in  the  same  weight  of  bread. 

If  these  beverages  are  drunk  in  the  small  quantities  in 
which  their  use  is  considered  permissible,  the  alcohol  is  in 
great  part  oxidized  (or  ''  burned  ")  in  the  system.  A  little 
actual  heat  is  thereby  developed.  Furthermore,  the  con- 
sumption of  fat  to  produce  heat  is,  in  a  corresponding  way, 
lessened.  Although  not  desirable  for  the  system  in  health, 
alcohol  is  thus  of  real  value  in  disease  where  the  assimila- 
tive functions  are  impaired.  Yet  alcohol  does  not,  as  was 
formerly  supposed,  lessen  the  need  of  the  healthy  system  for 
more  substantial  food.  It  seems  to  lessen  the  amount  of 
albumen  taken  up  from  the  digestive  tract,  or  causes  the 
albumen  of  the  system  to  become  changed  to  fat. 

Much  more  valuable  is  the  stimulative  power  of  alcohol. 
This  at  times  is  a  great  aid  to  incite  the  heart  and  nervous 
forces  to  fresh  effort.     As  with  all  stimulants,  however,  a 


EFFECTS   OF    ALCOHOL  247 

reaction  may  be  expected  after  the  use  of  alcohol.  Even 
the  feeling  of  warmth  caused  by  alcohol  is  not  real  warmth 
added  ;  it  is  simply  the  sensation  of  warmth  upon  the  sensi- 
tive nerve  ends  and  due  to  the  flushing  of  the  enlarged 
small  blood-vessels  of  the  surface  with  warm  blood  from  the 
deeper  parts  of  the  body.  This  means  a  loss  of  heat  rather 
than  a  gain. 

Alcohol  accordingly  does  not  aid  us  to  resist  the  effects  ofcoldy 
except  for  a  very  brief  time.  The  heat,  alluded  to  above, 
as  produced  by  the  burning  (physiologically  speaking)  of 
alcohol  within  the  body  is  slight  compared  with  the  great 
direct  waste  of  heat  that  it  causes  and  the  loss  to  the  system 
through  impaired  nutrition  induced  by  alcohol. 

It  is  possible  that  a  small  amount  of  alcohol  stimulates 
the  digestive  apparatus,  of  some  persons  at  least,  to  the  se- 
cretion of  digestive  juices.  The  diastase,  from  the  malt 
of  beer,  can  aid  the  digestion  of  starchy  foods.  It  is  well 
known  that  alcoholic  drinks  can  at  times  stimulate  people 
to  notable  mental  and  physical  achievements.  Yet  here 
again  the  inevitable  reaction  manifests  itself  in  the  form  of 
after-effects.  These,  however,  may  in  some  cases  be  con- 
sidered as  more  than  compensated  for  by  the  success  of  the 
stimulation.  The  habit  of  ether-drinking,  for  the  sake  of 
the  rapid  and  brief  stimulus,  seems  wholly  reprehensible. 

Over-use  of  alcoholic  beverages,  especially  if  persistent  and 
long-continued,  unquestionably  causes  digestive,  nervous 
and  other  disorders,  and  lessens  the  natural  resistant  power 
of  the  system  to  various  diseases.  The  children  of  drunk- 
ards seem  inferior  and  predisposed  to  epilepsy  and  other 
diseases. 

Harmful  substances,  said  to  be  frequently  present  in 
various  liquors,  are  often  asserted  to  cause  more  harm  than 
the  alcohol  itself.  This  is  hardly  true  ;  although  half  of  the 
whiskey  produced  here  is  "  compounded."  Some  liquors, 
such  as  genuine  absinthe  and  some  other  cordials,  include 


248  FOODS 

ingredients  in  their  regular  composition  that  are  regarded 
by  most  expert  authorities  as  being  harmful  and  tending  on 
long  use  to  result  in  positive  injury  to  the  system. 

As  for  the  numerous  vague  and  general  charges,  provoked 
by  a  few  genuine  and  specific  cases  of  fraudulent  mixing 
in  of  more  or  less  poisonous  drugs,  it  may  be  said  that  they 
seem  exaggerated.  Among  the  worst  substances  to  be  sus- 
pected in  this  connection  are  turpentine,  picric  acid,  picro- 
toxin,  Cayenne  pepper,  aloes,  alum,  tannin,  logwood.  The 
latest  publications  of  the  special  agents  of  the  U.  S.  Govern- 
ment do  not  allow  one  to  indorse  the  newspaper  statements 
of  the  very  dangerous  adulterations  of  our  liquors  in  gen- 
eral ;  although  the  dealer's  guaranty  gives  little  certainty 
that  the  article  is  genuine.  Adulteration  and  "  compound- 
ing "  are  very  common  ;  yet  the  counterfeits  are  rarely  very 
poisonous.     Genuine  goods  are,  however,  preferable. 

In  Canada,  the  latest  statements  from  the  laboratory  of 
the  Inland  Revenue  Department  show  that  there  also  the 
presence  of  these  substances  is  rare  in  liquors.  The  small 
amount  of  fusel  oil  present  in  some  crude  liquors  is  a  harm- 
ful element.  Equally  so  are  such  drugs  as  are  added  to 
some  of  the  proprietary  and  other  '^  medicinal  "  wines. 
Coca  is  one  of  these  drugs,  and  should  be  used  only  in 
definite,  known  quantities,  if  at  all,  and  under  strict  medical 
control.  The  good  wines  and  other  liquors  need  no  adver- 
tisement, and  are  best  when  bought  directly  of  reputable 
dealers.     Labels  are  usually  not  to  be  trusted. 

"  Moderate  drinking,"  like  excessive  use  of  alcohol, 
must  be  regarded  as  harmful  or  at  least  liable  to  become  so. 
The  tippler  errs  who  fancies  that,  by  using  only  expensive 
liquors,  he  escapes  the  dangers  to  which  a  poorer  drinker 
is  exposed.  Even  the  milder  alcoholic  beverages  are  not 
only  unnecessary,  but  probably  injurious  in  the  long  run. 
The  more  or  less  reliable  statistics  of  temperance  agitators 
and  institutions  seem  to  prove  this.     The  keenest  and  most 


ALCOHOL    AND    OPIUM  249 

Studious  life-insurance  examiners  are  inclined  to  reject  ap- 
plicants who  in  each  day  consume  more  liquor  than  is  equiv- 
alent to  one-and-a-half  ounces  of  alcohol.  Insurance  com- 
panies, which  reject  alcohol-drinkers,  show  a  lower  rate  of 
mortality  among  their  '^  risks  "  than  do  the  companies  that 
are  careless  in  this  respect.  Section  39,  Chapter  401  of  the 
New  York  laws  of  1892  makes  it  a  misdemeanor  for  a 
common  carrier  to  employ  in  any  responsible  position  "  any 
person  who  habitually  indulges  in  the  intemperate  use  of 
intoxicating  drinks." 

Opium-eating. — It  is  altogether  too  easy  for  people 
to  procure  stimulating,  anodyne,  sleep-producing  and  other 
harmful  drugs  that  the  most  careful  physicians  use  only  with 
extreme  precautions.  Morphine  is  one  of  these.  Like 
alcohol,  morphine  (or  opium)  is  a  stimulant  when  only 
small  doses  are  taken.  Larger  doses  cause  the  narcotic 
effects  to  be  manifested.  Opium  (or  morphine),  being 
more  secret,  convenient  and  elegant  than  alcohol,  seduces 
many  people.  In  the  end,  the  will-power  becomes  para- 
lyzed when  it  comes  to  the  question  of  resisting  the  perni- 
cious drug.  The  result  is  a  gradual  moral  and  physical 
degeneration. 

Too  often  the  beginning  of  the  "  habit "  of  the  drug  is 
due  to  the  careless  readiness  of  a  physician  to  use  morphine 
for  the  relief  of  pain  in  simple  cases  where  the  drug  is  not 
indispensable  and  where  other  means  would  effect  the  relief, 
even  though  requiring  more  time  and  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  physician  and  making  less  impression  upon  the  mind  of 
the  patient.  It  is  desirable  that  rigorous  legislative  enact- 
ments be  enforced  to  restrict  the  sale  of  these  drugs  ;  for,  if 
we  can  trust  our  evidence,  opium,  morphine  and  other  dan- 
gerous and  poisonous  substances  are  dispensed  without  pre- 
scriptions oftener  than  druggists  admit. 


FOOD    PREPARATION    AND    ADAPTATION 

Elsewhere  in  this  book,  the  important  fact  is  explained 
that  great  cold  does  not  kill  all  the  harmful  bacteria  that 
may  chance  to  be  on  or  in  unclean  food  ;  yet  the  cold  of  a 
proper  ice-chest  will  act  to  prevent  increase  of  bacteria  of 
any  kind  that  may  be  in  milk  or  on  other  food. 

Because  of  the  danger  that  with  uncooked  food  we  may 
introduce  into  our  systems  the  minute  organisms  that  cause 
more  or  less  serious  disease,  it  needs  to  be  repeated  here 
that  it  is  safest  to  cook  all  that  we  eat  and  also  the  water 
or  milk  that  we  drink^  if  any  uncertainty  exists  as  to  their 
purity. 

The  heat  of  thorough  cooking  not  only  destroys  any  liv- 
ing thing  that  may  be  in  or  upon  our  foods,  but  the  effect 
of  the  heat  is  also  to  make  vegetable  matters  and  tough 
meat  much  more  digestible  than  when  raw.  A  further  ad- 
vantage of  cooking  is  the  development  thereby  of  aromatic 
and  other  products  agreeable  to  the  taste  and  hence  serving 
to  promote  the  appetite  as  well  as  the  secretion  of  digestive 
juices. 

In  the  preliminary  preparation  of  articles  of  food,  the  in- 
digestible parts  are  to  be  removed  so  far  as  is  easily  possible, 
in  order  that  what  we  eat  may  always  be  unirritant  and 
readily  assimilable.  The  pounding  of  tough  meat  renders  it 
somewhat  more  tender  and  digestible.  It  is  well  to  have 
removed  the  hulls  and  outermost  parts  of  grains,  the  woody 
matter  of  vegetable  coatings  and  the  sinews  and  tough 
fibrous  membranes  in  and  around  muscles  and  fat  of  meat. 
All  such  indigestible  parts  lessen  the  alimentary  value  and 


A    MODEL    STOVE 


251 


impair  the  absorbability  of  foods  when  they  have  been  taken 
into  the  digestive  tract.  Whatever  we  eat  should  generally 
be  finely  divided  before  it  enters  the  mouth.  Food  ought 
to  be  well  chewed  before  it  is  swallowed. 


Fig.  42  is  introduced  as  illustrating  a  scientifically  constructed  cook- 
stove  for  a  workingman's  family.  It  is  made  by  the  Kaiserslautern 
foundry  in  Germany.  It  is  so  arranged  that  it  suffices  for  warming  a 
small  room  (of  1,750 
to  2,000  cubic  feet) 
in  winter.  Yet  in 
summer  the  heat  can 
be  carried  off  up  the 
chimney  so  as  not  to 
heat  the  living-room. 
Furthermore,  the 
stove  efficiently  draws 
off  the  steam  and 
odors  of  cooking, 
taking  them  up  the 
chimney. 

The  air  of  the  room 
is  not  only  warmed 
whenever  desired,  but 
is  also  renewed  by  the 
skilful  introduction 
of  large  flues  occupy- 
ing the  entire  back 
and  right  side  of  this 
stove.  The  large  sin- 
gle door  on  the  front 

opens  into  the  oven.  On  the  left  of  this  is  the  fire-pot.  From  that 
the  heat  goes  directly  to  the  right,  then  downward  and  finally  is  made 
to  circulate  entirely  around  the  oven.  Unlike  ordinary  stoves,  the  top 
is  here  cased  in,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  the  doors  of  this  upper 
part  being  of  glass. 


Fig.  42. 


It  is  wisest  and  in  the  end  most  economical  to  have  good 
stoves  or  ranges.  The  fuel  should  be  of  the  best.  Uten- 
sils should,  so  far  as  possible,  be  convenient,  of  approved 


252  FOOD    PREPARATION    AND    ADAPTATION 

quality,  and  carefully  kept  in  a  cleanly  kitchener  where  they 
can  be  most  promptly  found  at  hand.  Although  burnished 
brass  a?id  copper  are  very  pleasing  to  the  eye,  they  are  not 
to  be  recommended  for  saucepans  or  for  any  use  where  the 
food  remains  in  contact  with  the  metal. 

Fats  are  liable  to  attack  these  polished  copper  surfaces. 
Vegetable  or  other  acids,  such  as  vinegar,  may  also  act 
upon  copper  and  brass  pans,  etc.,  causing  copper  salts 
thereby  to  be  formed  to  a  slight  extent.  These  salts  may 
ba  very  poisonous.  Carefully  tinned  ironware  is  excel- 
lent, yet  tin  is  apt  to  have  lead  in  it.  Hence,  inferior 
qualities  of  tinware  are  unsafe,  and  the  same  may  be  said 
of  the  common  glazed  metallic  ware. 

Lead  is  an  ingredient  of  crystal  glass  and  of  most  of  the 
enamel  used,  upon  crockery  and  other  porcelain  articles,  to 
make  these  porous  vessels  impervious  to  moisture.  In  some 
cheap  or  insufficiently  burnt  earthenware,  this  lead  glaze  is 
badly  prepared.  Such  vessels,  when  used  for  cooking  pur- 
poses, may  give  off  this  poison  to  the  food.  Bottles  and 
cooking  utensils  should  not  be  cleaned,  by  shaking  shot  in 
them,  as  cleaning  by  this  process  may  cause  lead  to  remain 
on  the  surfaces. 

To  test  such  utensils,  fill  them  nearly  full  of  strong  vinegar  to 
which  a  little  salt  has  been  added  (not  much  more  than  a  drachm  to 
the  pint).  Boil  this  for  an  hour,  adding  a  little  boiling  water  now  and 
then  to  replace  that  constantly  being  lost  by  evaporation.  After  the 
vessel  and  the  contents  are  allowed  to  cool  somewhat,  the  vinegar  is 
filtered.  Then  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  added.  If  any  brown  or  black 
discoloration  or  precipitate  appear,  this  should  be  tested  further  to 
determine  definitely  whether  tin,  copper  or  lead  is  present. 

The  precipitate  caused  by  adding  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  (to  the 
vinegar  boiled  in  the  suspected  dish)  is  filtered  in  the  usual  way  upon 
filter-paper  in  a  funnel.  The  filtrate  is  then  washed  with  water  con- 
taining a  little  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Then  the  funnel  is  stopped  at 
the  bottom  by  means  of  a  bit  of  rubber  tubing  clamped  or  tied  at  the 
lower  part.     Without  removing  the  precipitate  from  the  funnel,  yello\*- 


TESTING    COOKING    UTENSILS,    ETC.  253 

ammonium  sulphide  is  poured  in  and  allowed  to  act  on  the  precipitate 
for  an  hour.     This  is  to  dissolve  any  tin  that  may  be  present. 

After  an  hour,  the  bottom  of  the  funnel  is  opened  :  the  ammonium 
sulphide  (which  can,  if  desired,  be  tested  later  for  tin)  is  thereby 
allowed  to  run  out.  The  precipitate  remaining  on  the  filter-paper  is 
washed  with  water  that  contains  a  little  ammonium  sulphide. 

This  precipitate,  together  with  the  filter-paper  used  to  filter  it,  is 
put  into  a  small  porcelain  evaporating  dish,  the  whole  of  the  pre- 
cipitate covered  with  strong,  chemically  pure  nitric  acid,  and  this  dish 
is  heated  on  a  water-bath  until  the  entire  contents  are  dissolved. 

After  filtering  this,  we  add  sulphuric  acid  sufficient  to  produce  the 
white  precipitate  of  sulphate  of  lead  if  that  metal  be  present.  [One 
part  of  this  lead  sulphate  (dried,  washed  and  re-dried,  then  heated  to 
a  glowing  temperature  in  a  porcelain  crucible)  corresponds  to  0.683 
parts  of  lead.] 

Ammonia,  in  excess,  is  then  added  to  the  filtrate  from  which  the 
lead  sulphate  has  been  filtered  out.  If  this  excess  of  ammonia  pro- 
duces a  blue  color,  copper  is  present.  A  very  delicate  test  for  copper 
is  to  add  acetic  acid  and  solution  of  ferrocyanide  of  potash  to  a  portion 
of  the  solution.  The  reddish- brown  ferrocyanide  of  copper  results,  if 
copper  be  present. 

For  baking  meat,  the  heat  should  be  greater  in  the  be- 
ginning than  is  desirable  after  the  meat  has  been  baking  for 
a  few  minutes.  The  heat  of  the  oven  causes  at  first  a  speedy 
evaporation  of  water  from  the  surface,  with  consequent  con- 
traction of  the  outer  part  of  the  meat.  At  the  same  time, 
other  changes  occur. 

Especially  does  the  development  of  aromatic  odors  from 
the  fat  take  place  and  add  to  the  agreeable  taste  developed 
by  cooking.  With  the  contraction  and  drying  of  the  outer 
layers  exposed  to  the  heat,  there  is  formed  a  more  resistant 
coating  on  the  outside.  After  the  coating  is  formed  it  pre- 
vents the  juices  of  the  meat  from  escaping  to  any  great 
extent. 

As  meat  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  the  heat  enters  but 
slowly  into  the  interior.  So  far  as  it  goes,  it  tends  to  convert 
the  tough  connective  tissue  into  more  tender  and  gelatinous 


254  FOOD    PREPARATION    AND    ADAPTATION 

forms,  coagulating  the  albumen  and  lessening  the  red  color 
of  the  blood  pigment.  If  a  piece  of  meat  be  heated  through- 
out to  a  temperature  of  i6o°  F.  or  very  nearly  that,  the  red, 
bloody  appearance  is  no  longer  present.  For  an  ordinary 
joint  or  roast,  more  than  two  and  one-half  hours  of  the 
usual  oven  heat  must  be  allowed  in  order  that  all  the  inner 
portions  of  the  meat  have  reached  the  temperature  of 
i6o°  F. 

This  degree  of  heat  suffices  to  kill  all  dangerous  parasites 
that  are  apt  to  occur  in  our  food.  Even  trichinous  pork 
and  tuberculous  beef  are  not  dangerous  after  every  part  of 
the  meat  has  been  exposed  for  five  minutes  to  such  a  heat. 
It  is  obvious  that  underdone  ("  rare  ")  meat  ought  not  to  be 
eaten  when  evidence  exists  that  it  is  diseased. 

The  sauces  and  gravies  that  are  produced  from  baking  and 
roasting  meat  have  fats,  fat  acids,  salts,  "extractives"  and 
the  heat  products  (of  gelatinous  and  fatty  elements)  which 
give  the  flavor,  but  which  are  not  always  well  borne  by 
people  of  delicate  or  impaired  digestion. 

Although  tender,  lean  meat  from  a  young  and  healthy 
animal  is  more  digestible  when  scraped  and  eaten  raw  than 
when  such  meat  is  cooked,  it  may  be  said  that,  in  general, 
cooking  increases  the  digestibility  of  meat.  Roasting  on  a 
spit  before  a  fire  gives  the  meat,  especially  of  fowls,  a  very 
agreeable  flavor. 

Broiling  is  a  similar  process  and  equally  effective.  When, 
however,  the  meat  is  cut  very  thick  and  the  centre  remains 
red  after  cooking,  the  inside  has  not  been  sufficiently  heated 
by  the  fire  to  insure  the  certain  destruction  of  all  possible 
parasites.  Hence  the  importance  of  careful,  skilled  inspec- 
tion of  meat  that  is  to  be  broiled  in  thick  slices  and  eaten  in 
a  half-raw  condition. 

For  frying  food,  the  hot  fat  used  should  be  at  a  temper- 
ature of  from  380°  to  400°  F.  A  piece  of  bread  changes  its 
color  at  once  if  thrown  into  such  hot  fat.     The  fish,  veal  or 


COOKING    MEAT,    ETC.  255 

Other  nieat  put  into  this,  cooks  rapidly  with  a  crackling  or 
'*  sizzling "  sound  which  comes  from  the  small  amount  of 
water  that  is  on  and  in  the  substance  of  the  cooking  food. 
This  water  is  suddenly  converted  into  steam,  a  little  at  a 
time,  and  thus  the  hissing  noise  results.  In  this  way  the 
food  is  cooked  by  the  steam  of  its  own  contained  juices.  No 
fat  enters  a  piece  of  frying  fish,  for  instance,  so  long  as  the 
heat  of  every  portion  of  the  surrounding  fat  is  greater  than 
that  of  boiling  water.  The  outside  is  browned  by  the  great 
heat  of  the  boiling  fat.  Yet,  however  well  fried,  such  food 
should  not  be  "  warmed  over,"  as  the  small  amount  of  fat 
adherent  to  the  outside  is  thereby  driven  inside. 

A  dry  fry  ^  as  by  putting  steak,  etc.,  on  a  hot  frying-pan  or 
other  surface,  is  more  healthful  when  the  heated  iron  surface 
is  not  greased  over.  The  side  of  the  steak  next  the  frying- 
pan,  being  cooked  first,  cools  when  the  meat  is  turned  over 
to  cook  the  other  side.  With  this  cooling,  any  adherent  fat 
tends  to  enter  the  meat  and  make  it  greasy.  All  fried  food 
necessarily  has  a  varying  amount  of  fat  about  its  outside. 
Hence  it  may  be  somewhat  indigestible  on  that  account. 
Yet  there  is  a  great  difference  in  digestibility  between  prop- 
erly and  improperly  fried  food. 

Boiled  meat  has  not  in  its  substance  so  much  of  the 
natural  salts  and  juices  as  would  be  present  in  the  same 
piece  if  cooked  by  dry  heat,  as  in  baking.  The  savory  ele- 
ments and  "  extractives  "  are  also  less  abundant  in  boiled 
meat.  Very  little  of  the  albumen  is  lost,  however,  by  going 
off  into  the  surrounding  water.  Yet  this  water  contains 
whatever  has  been  lost  from  the  meat.  Hence  it  can  be 
used  for  soup-stock.  The  lower  the  temperature  of  the  hot 
water  in  which  the  meat  is  cooked,  the  more  does  the  meat 
lose  from  its  substance. 

As  the  use  of  water  that  is  actually  boiling  acts  better 
than  that  of  a  lower  temperature  to  seal  the  outside  of  a 
piece  of  meat  and  prevent  somewhat  the  waste  of  salts  and 


256  FOOD    PREPARATION    AND    ADAPTATION 

Other  principles  from  its  substance,  it  is  usual  to  have  the 
water  as  hot  as  possible  for  the  first  few  minutes  after  the 
piece  of  meat  is  put  in  to  boil.  Then  the  temperature  of 
the  water  is  allowed  to  sink  somewhat ;  for,  under  this 
lower  heat,  the  meat  is  cooked  more  evenly  throughout. 

Boiling  causes  the  centre  of  the  piece  of  meat  to  be 
heated  more  speedily  and  thoroughly,  in  a  given  time,  than 
does  a  dry  heat,  such  as  that  of  baking.  Yet  considerably 
more  than  two  hours  must  be  allowed  for  the  temperature  in 
the  middle  of  a  seven-pound  piece  of  meat  to  have  got 
within  fifteen  degrees  of  that  of  the  water  in  which  it  is 
being  boiled. 

Soups  are  richest  when  the  meat  and  bones  are  first  put 
into  cool  water.  They  should  later  si?nmei-;  but  the  water 
must  at  no  time  reach  the  boiling  point,  if  much  of  the 
strength  of  the  meat  is  desired  in  the  soup.  Ordinary  thin 
soup  has  almost  no  nutritive  value.  The  various  proprietary 
bases  of  soup,  *'  meat  extracts,"  and  so  on  are  not  so  desira- 
ble as  the  ordinary  broth  which  comes  from  the  gentle  boil- 
ing of  meat.  Bones,  gristle  and  tough  meat  on  long  cooking 
in  water  that  does  not  rise  at  any  time  above  the  tempera- 
ture of  155°  F.,  make  a  strong  gelatinous  soup.  This  is  in 
reality  quite  nourishing  ;  for  the  gelatine  in  it  has  some  value 
as  a  nitrogenous,  tissue-restoring  food  ;  yet  it  is  incomplete 
even  as  an  albuminous  food,  being  decidedly  inferior  to  the 
albumen  of  lean  meat.  The  meat  salts  in  the  soup  are  of 
considerable  value.  Tripe  is  rather  gelatinous  and  very 
easily  digestible,  requiring  less  than  half  the  time  needed  to 
digest  average  beef. 

The  harder  eggs  are  made  by  means  of  boiling,  the  more 
solid  is  the  densely  coagulated  albumen,  and  the  less  readily 
can  they  be  digested.  Such  hard-boiled  eggs  digest  better 
when  chopped  or  chewed  into  fine  pieces.  Poachijig  is  the 
most  delicate  and  digestible  way  of  preparing  eggs.  The 
eggs  to  be  cooked  in  this  way  are  opened,  then  dropped 


COOKING    AT    A    LOW    HEAT  257 

singly  into  boiling  water  and  removed  therefrom  as  soon  as 
the  albumen  is  coagulated  to  a  bluish  white  (not  yellowish) 
color.  Greasy  methods  of  cooking  eggs  are  not  to  be 
recommended.     Omelettes  should  not  be  very  dry. 

Recent  attempts  have  been  made  in  various  places  to  revive  the 
older-fashioned  apparatuses  for  cooking  meats  and  other  food  at  tem-- 
peratures  below  that  of  the  boiling  point  of  water.  Roughly  speaking, 
we  may  say  that  the  boiling  point  of  water  diminishes  by  about  one 
and  a  half  degrees  (Fahr.)  for  every  thousand  feet  of  altitude  above  the 
sea-level.  Hence  the  processes  of  cooking  have  to  be  somewhat 
modified  among  high  mountains. 

When  the  water  in  the  cooking  vessel  is  at  about  202°  F.,  it  requires 
a  little  more  time  than  usual  to  cook  meat,  and  at  least  one-fourth 
longer  to  cook  potatoes  or  dried  vegetables.  While  vegetables  in  gen- 
eral require  the  water  to  be  as  hot  as  possible  in  order  that  they  become 
well  cooked,  meat  is  considered  by  some  to  be  more  palatable  when 
cooked  at  the  temperature  of  200°  F.  or  less.  There  is  a  considerable 
economy  of  heat  when  we  do  not  have  to  convert  water  into  steam. 

The  "  Norwegian  sauce-pan "  is  adapted  for  cooking  on  high 
mountains  or  elsewhere  that  the  heat  is,  from  necessity  or  choice,  below 
212°  F.  The  more  primitive  forms  of  this  appliance  comprise  some 
sort  of  woollen-covered  sauce-pan  kept  in  a  non-conducting  box  after 
being  well  heated.  The  same  sort  of  cooking  can  be  carried  out  by 
using  a  sheet-iron  oven  covered  with  felt,  asbestos  or  some  cheaper 
substance  which  is  a  good  non-conductor  of  heat  and  not  liable  to  catch 
fire.  A  layer  of  water,  even,  may  be  adapted  for  the  purpose.  This 
oven-box,  whether  large  or  very  small,  stands  by  itself,  on  a  rest,  or 
may  in  any  convenient  way  be  kept  a  foot  or  so  from  a  table  or  the 
floor,  so  that  a  lamp  or  gas-burner  beneath  can  be  used  for  the  desired 
heat. 

There  is  a  door  through  which  the  dishes  of  raw  food  can  be  placed 
upon  the  shelf  or  shelves  within  the  oven.  There  should  also  be  a 
small  round  opening  on  the  top  or  side.  It  is  closed  by  a  cork  stopper. 
Through  this  latter,  a  thermometer  can  be  fastened  so  that  it  records 
the  inside  temperature,  which  must  not  be  allowed  to  fall  below  160" 
F.  for  cooking  meat.  The  same  degree  of  heat  is  excellent  for  steriliz- 
ing milk  ;  yet  more  time  is  then  of  course  required  than  when  the 
temperature  used  is  that  of  boiling  water.  This  oven  is  useful  for 
foods  that  need  a  slow,  long  cooking  at  a  moderate  temperature, 
especially  in  summer  and  where  other  fuel  than  oil  is  scarce. 
17 


258  FOOD    PREPARATION    AND    ADAPTATION 

For  cooking  vegetables  it  may  in  general  be  said  that 
boiling  water  is  none  too  hot.  The  common  error  is  that 
they  are  not  cooked  sufficiently  long  and  well.  Thorough 
cooking  causes  the  starch  cells  to  swell  and  thus  rupture  their 
cellulose  walls  and  tough  framework.  The  starch,  thus 
opened  to  the  action  of  the  digestive  juices,  is  in  part  further 
converted  by  the  heat  and  made  more  digestible.  In  boiling 
potatoes,  it  is  well  to  add  salt  to  the  water,  as  this  is  a  neces- 
sary substance  that  is  not  sufficiently  abundant  in  potatoes. 

To  cook  leguminous  vegetables  (such  as  peas  and 
beans)  soft  water  is  preferable  to  hard  water  ;  for  the  lime- 
salts  of  the  latter  tend  to  form  an  insoluble  combination 
with  the  legumin^  the  albuminous  element  of  these  foods. 
In  cooking  dried  peas  and  beans,  the  water  into  which  they 
are  put  should  be  at  first  cool  and  only  very  gradually  raised 
to  a  high  temperature.  Proceeding  thus,  and  cooking  them 
for  a  long  while,  these  very  nutritious  vegetable  foods  are 
made  more  digestible  than  if  carelessly  cooked.  Pea-meal, 
even  if  prepared  by  using  a  "  coffee-mill  "  in  the  kitchen,  is 
more  digestible  and  nutritious  than  are  whole  peas.  Mash- 
ing through  a  sieve  also  improves  them. 

Green  peas,  string  beans,  cabbage  and  vegetables  in  general 
must  be  thoroughly  cooked ;  cooking  them  well,  we  increase 
their  digestibility.  Steaming  is  preferable  to  boiling  as  a 
means  of  cooking  vegetables  when  it  is  desired  that  their 
salts  and  flavors  be  retained  in  full  strength  instead  of  going 
off  into  the  water  as  they  do  when  boiled. 

Toasting  improves  the  digestibility  of  ordinary  bread. 
So  many  people  are  ignorant  of  the  proper  way  to  toast 
bread,  that  it  may  be  repeated  here  that  the  bread,  if  at  all 
moist,  needs  in  all  cases  to  be  dried  near  the  fire  just  before 
toasting.  The  toasting  should  only  brown  the  bread,  and 
in  no  case  blacken  it.  It  is  often  best  to  toast  bread  on  a 
broiler  placed  on  top  of  a  hot  stove  and  without  removing 
the  stove  covers. 


TEMPERATURE    OF    FOOD    AND    DRINK  259 

Coffee  is  so  universally  used  that  a  few  words  may  be  said 
as  to  its  proper  preparation.  It  should  be  roasted  at  a  tem- 
perature not  exceeding  425°  F.  until  brown,  and  not  black- 
ened at  all.  It  is  best  when  freshly  roasted,  and  should  be 
finely  ground  immediately  before  preparing  the  beverage. 
For  this,  a  gentle  temperature  is  best.  Prolonged  boiling 
drives  off  the  aroma.  The  pot  is  to  be  scalded  out  before- 
hand. 

Tea  should  not  be  ''steeped,"  because  long  standing  in 
hot  water  causes  tea  to  yield  up  its  astringent  and  unhealth- 
ful  tannic  acid  to  the  water.  Very  hot  tea  is  injurious  to 
the  mucous  membranes  of  the  throat  and  digestive  apparatus. 

The  temperature  of  the  food  swallowed  ought  not  to 
be  very  much  higher  than  that  of  the  body.  This  rule 
should  be  borne  in  mind  particularly  in  the  feeding  of  in- 
fants. The  habitual  use  of  very  hot  or  very  cold  foods  and 
drinks  tends  to  induce  organic  disease  of  various  organs  and 
especially  catarrh  of  the  stomach.  Even  the  hard  enamel 
of  the  teeth  is  considered  liable  to  injury  from  extreme  tem- 
peratures in  the  food  as  it  is  eaten. 

While  it  is  not  desirable  to  fix  an  arbitrary  limit,  it  may 
be  said  that  food  which  is  not  above  the  temperature  of 
110°  F.  is  not  too  hot  for  an  adult  to  eat.  For  infants  the 
temperature  of  milk  or  other  food  must  not  be  above  100°  F. 
when  it  is  given  to  them. 

Spring  luater  has  an  average  temperature  of  from  44°  to 
58°  F.,  in  its  natural  state.  Health  requires  that  the  water 
or  other  liquid  drunk  should  have  a  temperature  of  at  least 
53°  F.  It  is  more  healthful  if  the  temperature  is  several 
degrees  higher  than  this.  The  instinctive  desire  for  cool 
drinks  when  we  are  very  warm  is  not  to  be  gratified  by  copi- 
ous draughts  of  very  icy  water.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  unaided  instinct  is  not  always  the  safest  guide. 

Ice-cold  water  is  not  only  prejudicial  to  the  best  health, 
but  also   is  not   favored  by  people  of  the   most   delicate 


26o  FOOD    PREPARATION    AND    ADAPTATION 

tastes.  Although  it  is  not  uncommon  to  drink  champagne 
or  beer  cooled  to  45°  F.,  white  wines  (that  do  not  foam) 
please  the  palate  much  better  when  warmer  than  that.  The 
best  judges  prefer  red  wine  when  it  has  a  temperature  of 
about  65°  F. 

Coffee  and  tea  are  also  agreeable  when  about  as  warm  as 
that,  and  are  apt  to  prove  unhealthful  if  habitually  taken 
much  hotter  than  115°  F.  Some  of  the  stomach  trouble 
caused  by  these  drinks  is  often  due  to  swallowing  them  when 
they  are  very  hot.  Milk  just  taken  from  the  cow  may  be 
said  to  average  nearly  94°  F.  At  this  temperature  it  is  very 
digestible.  It  should  not  be  drunk  when  it  is  much  cooler 
than  60°  F.  It  may  cause  gastro-intestinal  and  other  dis- 
orders if  swallowed  in  large  quantities  and  very  cold. 

General  Considerations  regarding  Eating 

For  infants,  fluid  foods,  such  as  milk,  are  best.  With 
adults,  however,  the  case  is  different.  Even  a  pap-like  con- 
sistency of  the  food  is  undesirable  for  prolonged  use.  While 
much  water  is  needed  daily  for  the  body  use,  an  excess  of 
liquid  at  meals  and  in  and  with  the  food  appears  to  be  in 
general  detrimental  to  the  health.  That  the  solutions  of 
salts  and  other  substances  in  the  system  may  not  lack  water, 
we  should  drink  from  time  to  time  between  meals. 

It  is  well  to  make  it  a  rule  always  to  drink  a  little  pure 
water  on  rising  from  sleep  and  also  on  retiring,  in  case  that 
enough  fluid  has  not  already  been  taken  into  the  body. 
Alcoholic  drinks  should  not  often  be  taken  into  an  empty 
stomach.  If  water  be  needed,  it  should  generally  be  taken 
before  a  meal  rather  than  when  the  stomach  is  full  or  receiv- 
ing food.  Yet  this  is  not  meant  to  say  that  we  should  not 
drink  with  meals  when  we  are  very  thirsty  or  when  the  food 
is  very  dry.  Within  four  hours  after  a  meal,  as  a  rule,  it  is 
well  to  drink  some  water,  as  an  unhealthful  concentration 
of  the  urine  and  the  body  fluids  is  thereby  prevented.     No 


CONCENTRATED  FOODS — MEALS  261 

considerable  amount  of  soup  should  be  taken  with  a  full 
meal  of  other  food. 

Extremely  condensed  foods  may  be  so  adjusted  as  to  sup- 
ply the  needs  of  the  body  ;  but  when  they  are  used  exclu- 
sively, one  is  liable  to  eat  too  much  of  such  concentrated 
foods  if  they  are  palatable.  It  is  well  to  have  the  food  suffi- 
ciently bulky  to  produce  a  sense  of  satiety  when  enough  has 
been  eaten.  Hence  it  is  best  that  the  nutritious  elements 
be  diluted,  so  to  speak,  by  the  presence  of  inert  and  innu- 
tritious  substances  that  cause  the  volume  of  the  food  to  be 
enlarged.  Such  a  suitable  condition  of  the  food  is  produced 
by  the  substances  usually  eaten  in  the  ordinary  mixed  diet 
that  has  abundant  vegetables.  Not  to  consider  the  extra 
water  required  by  the  body,  the  total  bulk  of  the  nutritious 
and  innutritions  elements  in  the  food  needed  in  one  day  by 
an  average  man  at  work  may  be  estimated  at  somewhat  less 
than  three  and  three-fourths  pounds. 

The  principal  meal  of  the  day  usually  ought  not  to 
comprise  more  than  half  of  the  entire  daily  food.  The-  re- 
mainder is  to  be  taken  at  intervals  during  the  day.  If  only 
one  or  two  meals  are  eaten  in  a  day,  the  necessarily  large 
amount  then  swallowed  not  only  impedes  digestion  by  reason 
of  the  large  mass,  but  in  most  cases  tends  also  to  distend 
the  stomach  too  much.  A  permanent  dilatation  of  the 
stomach  results  if  the  habit  of  overfilling  it  with  food  be 
persisted  m  very  long. 

Especially  with  heavy  eaters,  do  the  digestive  orga?is  need 
some  rest  during  the  day  and  at  night.  Hence  numerous, 
frequent  meals  are  not,  as  a  rule,  to  be  recommended.  The 
stomach  ought  to  be  allowed  to  rest  for  at  least  five  or  six 
hours  after  the  appetite  is  fully  satisfied.  Yet  no  rule  is 
absolute.  Habit  counts  for  much.  Regularity  is,  in  most 
cases,  of  advantage.  In  general,  three  meals  a  day  are 
enough  for  adults  ;  yet  some  seem  to  need  four,  and  five 
even  may  be  allowable  when   one  is  recuperating  from  an 


262  FOOD    PREPARATION    AND    ADAPTATION 

illness.  Laborers,  especially  if  at  manual  work  for  many 
hours,  need  more  abundant  meals  than  people  engaged  in 
strictly  sedentary  work. 

Dinner  may,  for  manual  laborers,  be  at  noon-time,  as  a 
rule  ;  but  in  that  case  at  least  a  brief  rest  should  be  had 
after  the  meal.  For  brain-workers,  the  heaviest  meal  of  the 
day  serves  best  when  taken  after  the  effort  of  the  day's  work 
is  over.  It  is  well  to  rest  for  a  while  after  a  substantial 
meal.  Mental  or  emotional  activity,  during  or  near  the 
time  of  eating,  impedes  digestion.  The  stomach  needs  to 
have  received  some  food  before  work  is  begun.  The 
first  meal  after  arising  from  sleep  ought  to  be  a  light  one, 
although  having  an  abundance  of  the  albuminous  elements 
of  the  daily  food.  At  dinner,  the  main  part  of  the  day's 
fat  food  should  be  taken. 

Very  rapid  eating  is  liable  to  result  in  confirmed  "dys- 
pepsia." It  is  more  healthful  to  allow  sufficient  time  for 
chewing  the  food  and  having  it  mingle  thoroughly  with  the 
digestive  juices.  The  question  as  to  whether  a  very  small 
amount  of  good  wine^  taken  with  a  meal,  aids  in  any  way 
the  digestion  of  food,  is  not  yet  settled.  Probably  it  does 
so,  especially  when  fat  has  been  eaten.  A  large  amount  of 
wine  and  other  liquor  is  unquestionably  harmful.  Beer 
Sit  meals  is  considered  by  the  highest,  unprejudiced  authori- 
ties of  beer-drinking  countries  as  hindering  stomachal 
digestion. 

The  use  of  "cocktails,"  "bitters,"  "appetizers,"  or  other 
alcoholic  stimulants  just  before  a  meal  is  reprehensible.  In 
the  first  place,  such  things  do  not  accomplish  what  they 
are  supposed  to.  Secondly,  they  may  provoke  catarrh  of 
the  stomach  and  permanent  weakening  of  the  digestion. 
Thirdly,  alcoholic  beverages  drunk  when  the  stomach  is 
empty  are  uncommonly  liable  to  produce  liver  disease.  Sir 
Henry  Thompson,  in  his  excellent  little  book  on  J^oocf  and 
Feedin^^  condemns  the  practice  as  "a  gastronomic  no  less 


]. 


MILK    NECESSARY    FOR    P.ABES  263 


than    a  physiological    blunder,    injuring    the    stomach    and 
depraving  the  palate." 

Infant    Feeding 

The  young  infant  needs  relatively  more  nitrogen  and 
carbon  in  its  food  than  is  required  later  in  life  ;  for  the 
little  body,  besides  having  to  develop  flesh  and  other  new 
tissues  for  its  growth,  loses  heat  disproportionately  fast. 
Hence  it  must  have  much  fat  to  burn  up  for  producing  the 
heat.  In  the  early  weeks,  the  digestive  secretions  of  the 
infant  are  quite  unlike  those  of  the  adult.  Starch  is  then 
indigestible.  The  first  set  of  teeth  is  not  developed  till  in 
the  third  year.  Hence,  and  for  reasons  previously  given, 
milk  is  the  most  suitable  food  for  very  young  children. 

Milk  from  the  breast  of  a  healthy  woman  is  the  best  food 
for  a  babe.  //  is  better  for  the  mother  that  she  suckle  her 
own  new-born  babe.  She  should  at  least  do  so  for  the  few 
weeks  that  she  is  resting  after  child-birth  and  while  the 
naturally  enlarged  womb  is  returning  to  its  ordinary  size. 
As  soon  as  the  new-born  child  cries  after  its  first  sleep,  it 
should  be  suckled.  If  mother's  milk  then  be  lacking,  a 
little  diluted  cow's  milk,  properly  sterilized,  and  then 
skimmed,  may  be  given.  In  the  first  day  of  life,  food  is 
needed  only  two  or  three  times. 

After  that,  the  infant  requires  to  be  fed  at  least  seven  or 
eight  times  in  twenty-four  hours.  That  is,  it  receives  milk 
every  three  hours  with  only  one  feeding  during  the  night. 
To  this  latter  point  the  babe  can  easily  become  habituated 
without  injury  to  its  health  and  with  pronounced  advantage 
to  the  mother.  If  it  appears  to  be  hungry  oftener  than 
once  every  two  hours,  either  the  child  is  ill  or  the  quan- 
tity or  quality  of  the  milk  is  deficient. 

The  most  reliable  estimates  assume  that  of  mother's  milk 
at  each  meal  the  healthy  nursing  infant  receives  probably 
from  one-fiftieth  to  one-fortieth  of  its  body  weight.     Cow's 


264 


FOOD    PREPARATION    AND    ADAPTATION 


milk  is  unlike  woman's  milk.  (See  table  on  page  220.) 
When  cow's  milk  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  milk  from  the 
human  breast,  this  milk  ought  to  be  sterilized  by  heating,  as 
explained  on  page  231,  unless  very  fresh  and  from  the 
purest  source. 

When  it  is  used  for  feeding  an  infant  during  the  first 
months  of  life,  average  cow's  milk  ought  to  be  diluted  at 
least  as  much  as  follows  ; 


cow's  MILK  (required  DAILY). 


i  pint  .... 
I     **       .     .     .     . 

li  •*  .  .  .  . 
I  quart  .... 
I  *'  (or  more). 
3  pints  .... 


AGE 

OF   BABE. 

3  days. 

3 

weeks. 

3 

months. 

5 

" 

7 

" 

9 

t( 

II 

PROPORTION   OF   WATER. 


I  part  milk  to  3  of  water. 

I  "        ''  "  2   "      '* 

I  "        "  "  I  "      ** 

4  "       "  *'  3  <«       " 

10      "        "     ''  I  "      *' 

Undiluted  milk. 


The  above  daily  amount  may  be  slightly  exceeded.  The 
usual  tendency  is  to  give  too  much.  The  bottle  should  be 
held  so  that  the  babe  swallows  no  air.  Very  fresh  cream 
may  be  added  in  very  small  quantities.  But  it  is  better  to 
have  very  rich  milk.  Water  can  be  given  besides,  especially 
if  the  weather  or  rooms  be  dry  and  hot.  In  any  case,  this 
water  should  have  been  boiled  unless  unquestionably  pure. 
So,  too,  is  boiling  necessary  for  the  water  used  to  dilute  the 
milk  unless  the  milk  is  to  be  sterilized  ;  then  both  can  be 
sterilized  together  after  the  water  is  added.  The  artificial 
food  should  have  a  temperature  of  about  98°  F.  at  the  time 
when  fed  to  the  babe. 

It  is  important,  from  a  hygienic  standpoint,  that  the  milk 
in  the  nursing-bottle  be  thrown  away  after  each  nursing  and 
that  the  bottle  be  rinsed  with  boiling  water.  Shot  should 
never  be  used  to  clean  out  such  bottles.  The  rubber-nipple 
arrangement   must  be   rinsed  well  at   the   time  when   the 


INFANT    FEEDING  265 

bottle  is  being  cleaned  out  after  using.  It  can  lie  in  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  boric  acid  before  use. 

From  one  to  two  per  cent,  of  sugar  may  with  advantage 
be  added  to  the  milk  prepared  for  babes.  Milk-sugar  is 
preferable  to  cane-sugar.  Little  packets  of  this  can  be 
weighed  out  by  a  druggist  so  that  one  contains  just  the 
proper  percentage  of  sugar  for  one  day  or  one  meal  as 
the  case  may  be.  (loo  grains  may  be  added  to  each  pint.) 
It  is  well  to  advise  against  using  too  much  sugar. 

An  excess  of  sugar  is  what  makes  ordinary  condensed 
milk  objectionable.  If  (as  is  the  case  with  the  best  brands) 
the  milk  is  heated  in  condensing  so  as  to  have  destroyed 
all  tubercle  bacilli,  and  if  it  is  not  oversweetened,  con- 
densed milk  is  quite  a  good  artificial  food,  especially  for 
hot  climates.  Some  very  strong  and  healthy  children  have 
been  reared  entirely  upon  this  food.  It  must  be  sufficiently 
diluted  with  pure  water  immediately  before  using.  When 
travelling,  it  is  well  to  cook  the  water  used  for  diluting 
condensed  milk.  A  spirit-lamp  is  convenient  for  this 
purpose. 

At  the  end  of  the  twenty  minutes  required  for  the  babe 
to  take  its  meal  from  the  mother's  breast,  the  nipples  should 
be  rinsed  with  boiled  water  (or  boracic  acid  solution)  and 
dried  with  a  clean  cloth.  If  corsets  be  worn,  they  are  to 
support  the  breasts  from  below  and  must  not  press  upon 
the  nipple.  The  welfare  of  the  infant  makes  it  desirable 
that  any  attempts  to  wean  be  deferred  till  after  the  heat  of 
the  summer  and  early  autumn. 

Starchy  foods  are  not  fitted  for  infantile  digestion.  Yet 
strained  barley-water  (made  by  taking  whole,  unground 
barley-grains  and  boiling  them)  aids  the  digestion  of  cow's 
milk  at  times  if  such  barley-water  be  added  to  dilute  the 
milk.  Although  undesirable  as  a  food  in  early  months  of 
life,  starch  serves  as  a  food  for  young  children  provided  that 
it  has  previously  been  converted   into  dextrine  and  other 


266  FOOD    PREPARATION    AND    ADAPTATION 

more  digestible  substances.  This  desirable  action  upon 
starch  is  effected  by  very  thoroughly  roasting  or  baking  any 
good  flour.  Such  baked  flour  is  the  basis  of  most  of  the 
proprietary  foods.  Their  high  cost  is  quite  unwarranted, 
since  the  same  products  (or  rather  their  counterparts)  can 
be  purchased  at  a  fraction  of  the  high  prices  charged  for  the 
proprietary  article. 

Let  no  mother  take  up  the  use  of  such  advertised  articles 
in  the  belief  that  milk  is  not  an  all-sufficient  food  for  her 
babe  till  the  first  year  is  nearly  past.  A  minute  amount  of 
iron  may  at  times  be  needed  in  addition.  Raw  bread, 
biscuit,  crackers,  and  vegetable  food  in  general  cause  most 
of  the  digestive  disorders  of  early  life.  It  is  more  desirable 
to  improve  the  quality  of  the  milk  given  (if  it  seem  unsuited) 
and  to  attend  to  extreme  hygienic  cleanliness  of  that  food, 
than  to  add  other  articles  to  the  diet. 

By  the  end  of  the  second  year,  the  child  has  all  of 
its  first  set  of  teeth  excepting  the  posterior  molars.  Even 
these  may  then  have  appeared.  Yet  its  delicate  and  imma- 
tured  digestive  organs  cannot  so  well  dispose  of  tough  and 
fibrous  food  as  they  can  later  in  life.  So,  too,  sour  or 
sugary  foods  (or  confectionery)  or  things  abounding  in 
starches  are  to  be  allowed  only  cautiously.  Milk  and  other 
animal  foods  are  still  preferable  to  vegetable  foods  even  till 
after  the  fifth  year.  It  is  best  that  these  latter  be  not  given 
in  excess,  and  they  should  always  be  thoroughly  cooked. 

The  complex  diet  of  the  adult  is  not  proper  for  the  young 
child.  Especially  should  stimulating  beverages  of  all  kinds 
be  excluded.  Water  and  milk  (both  boiled  if  not  absolutely 
pure)  are  all  the  drinks  that  the  child  needs.  As  many  as 
five  or  six  light  meals  slowly  eaten  may  be  given,  but  only 
pure  water  should  be  allowed  between  meals.  The  child 
should  drink  just  as  much  of  this  as  it  desires. 


DIET 

Moderation  and  abstemiousness  in  eating  as  in  the  use 
of  stimulants  and  of  all  other  things  seems  to  be  the  promi- 
nent factor  that  rules  among  long-lived  people  and  races. 
As  has  already  been  indicated,  overeating  is  accountable  for 
many  ailments,  especially  among  those  who  do  not  exercise 
at  all. 

A  purely  vegetable  diet  is  as  undesirable  as  an  exclusive 
use  of  meat  and  other  animal  food.  After  the  first  years  of 
life,  a  mixed  diet  is  best  for  all  ages  and  conditions  of  people. 
In  ordinary  life,  we  can  only  approximately  estimate  how 
much  a  person  eats.  There  the  main  thing  is  to  see  that 
poisonous  or  even  mildly  harmful  things  are  avoided,  that 
one  has  what  one  likes,  and  that  at  the  same  time  this  con- 
tains enough  nutriment  but  still  no  excessive  amount  of  any 
food.  The  tables  given  on  page  220  serve  as  a  guide  for 
estimating  the  chemical  value  of  such  foods  as  are  included 
there. 

In  the  main,  the  proportions  proper  for  the  daily  diet  of  an  individual 
correspond  quite  closely  with  those  given  on  page  213,  if  provision  be 
made  for  an  increase  of  fatty  elements  when  needed.  For  institutions 
and  places  where  food  is  prepared  week  in  and  week  out  for  the  same 
persons  taking  no  food  whatsoever  besides,  careful  measurements  and 
chemical  estimates  furnish  very  important  aids. 

Koenig's  figures  given  in  his  well-known  tables  still  remain  the  basis 
for  almost  all  such  estimates.  An  instructive  little  book,  giving  some 
low-priced  dietaries  for  families,  is  that  of  Mrs.  Abel  (on  economic 
cooking),  published  in  1890,  by  the  American  Public  Health  Associa- 
tion. In  that  book,  the  word  "  proteid'.'  is  used  to  indicate  albuminous 
food  principles. 


268  DIET 

Practical  physicians  realize  that  it  is  well  to  regard  the  human  body 
as  more  than  a  mere  machine  for  getting  work  out  of  food.  It  seems 
to  them  proper  always  to  take  into  account  the  individual  peculiarities 
and  other  hziman  factors.  It  is  therefore  quite  unwise  to  consider  the 
mere  chemical  value  of  foods  as  the  only  thing  of  importance. 

Chemical  standards  are  furthermore  misleading  if  followed  without 
discrimination.  Meats  differ  much  according  to  the  animal  from  which 
a  certain  cut  is  taken.  Beef  from  northern  range  cattle  is  not  the  same 
as  that  from  the  stall-fed  steer.  Both  are  decidedly  superior  to  the  beef 
of  the  great  southwestern  grazing  regions.  Considerable  variations 
occur  with  other  meat,  irrespective  of  the  general  fact  that  fat  meat  is 
economical,  as  having  fat  in  its  tissue  where  most  lean  meat  has  water. 
Other  food  products  can  also  vary  greatly. 

In  pregnancy,  the  diet,  owing  to  the  peculiar  condition, 
needs  to  be  very  simple  yet  nutritious.  Albuminous  sub- 
stances should  abound,  since  much  new  tissue  has  to  be 
formed.  The  use  of  sour  and  highly  spiced  food  should  be 
restricted,  and  the  fat  supply  need  not  be  large.  A  tendency 
to  a  constipated  state  of  the  bowels  is  commonly  present  and 
needs  especial  attention.  For  the  first  three  days  after  labor, 
the  diet  should  embrace  only  light  food,  as  toast,  poached 
eggs,  soups,  etc. 

When  the  child  is  born  and  deriving  its  nourishment  from 
the  mother's  breasts,  she  needs  copious  supplies  of  albumi- 
nous and  other  foods  and  as  much  fat  as  is  well  digested. 
Rich,  pure  milk  taken  on  retiring  helps  to  supply  this  fat. 
If  any  considerable  amount  of  peas  and  beans  or  of  the  less 
valuable  green  vegetables  be  taken,  indigestion  is  apt  to  re- 
sult and  the  quality  of  the  milk  may  thereby  become  injured. 
Green  fruits,  sour  things,  spirits,  inferior  beer  and  wine  may 
have  the  same  effect,  especially  if  these  be  not  part  of  the 
habitual  diet.  Liquids  should  be  given  in  abundance  to  the 
woman  who  is  nursing  a  babe  ;  yet  the  use  of  alcoholic 
liquor  should  in  any  case  be  very  limited.  Coffee  and  tea 
if  taken  should  not  be  strong. 

Because  of  the  great  strain  upon  the  system,  several  extra 


DIET    IN    HEALTH  269 

meals  may  be  allowed.  They  must,  however,  be  very  simple. 
Particularly  with  wet-?iurses,  is  any  unwonted  elaborateness 
of  food  to  be  avoided.  Rich  foods  are  quite  undesirable  for 
such  women.  The  absence  of  restraint  with  an  abundance 
of  "  good  things  "  may  cause  the  milk  of  wet-nurses  to  be- 
come unfit  for  their  nurslings. 

In  old  age,  the  digestive  power  is  weakened.  Other 
organs,  including  the  muscles,  are  then  feebler  and  almost 
always  have  less  work  to  do.  Besides  therefore  requiring 
less  food  for  the  muscles  and  actually  being  able  to  use  up 
less  nutriment  in  work,  there  is  much  less  food  needed  to 
repair  the  relatively  small  waste  of  the  system  in  general. 
In  the  aged,  there  is  no  new-tissue  formation.  Old  people 
ought  to  be  exceedingly  careful  to  avoid  overeating.  They 
need  considerably  less  food  than  in  middle  age,  and  any 
excess  is  particularly  harmful. 

A  simple  and  limited  but  nutritious  diet  is  best  for  the 
aged.  Tough,  fibrous  food,  especially  the  coarser  vegetables 
and  coarse  parts  of  meat,  are  to  be  avoided.  Fat  should  be 
eaten  somewhat  sparingly,  as  its  absorption  is  usually  more 
restricted  in  old  age.  As  the  nervous  system  is  also  weaker, 
mild  alcoholic  stimulants  may  then  very  properly  be  given 
regularly  and  in  great  moderation.  Yet  this  must  be  always 
with  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  blood-vessels,  especially 
of  the  brain,  are  deteriorated  in  advanced  years,  and  quite 
liable  to  give  way  under  strain  if  very  much  of  a  stimulus  be 
given  at  once  in  any  shape. 

In  summer  we  do  not  need  much  less  albuminous  food 
than  in  winter  ;  yet  it  is  more  important  to  guard  against  an 
excess  in  hot  portions  of  the  year  and  in  hot  climates.  Any 
superfluous  meat  or  other  highly  albuminous  food  is  then  very 
liable  to  become  converted  into  fat  and  heat.  For  supplying 
the  general  needs  of  the  body,  bread,  rice  and  various  other 
foods  having  much  digestible  carbohydrate  substance  that 
is  well  cooked  should  be  chosen  in  preference  to  fats. 


270  DIET 

Fats  are  not  as  well  absorbed  nor  so  agreeable  in  summer 
as  in  winter.  The  digestive  tract  is,  in  warm  weather,  quite 
sensitive  to  unwholesome  and  improperly  cooked  foods. 
This  is  partly  because  of  the  greater  number  of  bacteria  that 
then  enter  with  the  food  and  increase  and  cause  trouble  with 
any  excess  of  indigestible  food.  It  has  already  been  empha- 
sized that  vegetable  food  when  uncooked  is  much  less  suited 
for  human  diet  than  when  thoroughly  cooked. 

Fruit  is  most  healthful  when  ripe,  but  not  over-ripe.  Raw 
food  should  be  very  clean.  Lettuce,  for  example,  ought  to 
be  carefully  picked  apart,  leaf  by  leaf,  and  rinsed.  The 
hands  must  be  clean  before  touching  such  food.  As  already 
explained,  water  and  other  beverages  may  be  cool,  but  icy 
drinks  are  unhealthful.  The  ice  should  be  from  pure  lakes 
or  artificially  made  of  distilled  water.  Water,  unless  com- 
ing from  an  exceptionally  pure  source,  should  have  been 
well  heated,  as  by  boiling  or  distillation,  before  being  drunk. 

Diet   in    Disease 

There  are  comparatively  few  diseases  in  which  diet  is  not 
of  vastly  more  importance  than  are  medicines.  Hygienic 
management  of  the  diet  in  serious  disease-states  involves  a 
consideration  of  the  previous  habits  as  well  as  of  the  present 
condition  of  the  vital  powers.  Especially  must  the  digestion 
be  considered,  since  it  is  in  disease  less  able  to  utilize  the 
food  properly  than  in  health. 

In  fevers  where  the  process  is  acute,  rapid  and  contin- 
ued, the  wasting  of  the  body  substance  may  be  speedy  and 
excessive,  as  regards  both  water  and  solids.  Even  though, 
as  is  usual,  very  little  food  is  then  taken  into  the  body,  the 
waste  of  nitrogen  may  in  fevers  be  twice  as  great  as  in 
health.  The  carbon  of  the  body  is  destroyed  to  nearly  the 
same  extent.  Hence  the  weight  diminishes  so  fast  that  the 
loss  may  be  a  pound  or  more  every  day. 

This  soon  becomes  serious,  and,  if  it  goes  very  far,  death 


DIET    FOR    FEVER    CASES  27 I 

is  nigh.  While  the  diseased  condition  is  present,  the  serious 
loss  of  the  body  substance  cannot  be  repaired  so  readily  as 
could  a  similar  waste  in  health  ;  for  not  only  is  the  stomach 
more  sensitive  and  its  absorptive  capacity  diminished,  but 
in  the  worst  cases  the  secretions  of  the  enfeebled  digestive 
tract  are  almost  wholly  inactive. 

Experience  in  many  cases,  as  well  as  experimental  proofs, 
warrant  the  view  that  no  aggravation  of  a  general  fever  or 
other  harm  results  upon  the  intelligently  managed  giving  of 
food.  Of  course,  common  sense  must  be  used,  and  the 
peculiar  features  of  each  case  are  to  be  considered.  When 
the  stomach  or  intestines  are  notably  diseased,  or  if  peritoni- 
tis be  present,  very  delicate  food  is  necessary.  In  children, 
as  in  adults,  we  find  that  when  the  body  is  being  wasted, 
the  excretion  of  carbon  and  nitrogen  does  not  increase  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  supplied  by  judicious  feeding. 
This  means  that  the  food  does  not  serve  to  feed  the  system 
and  is  to  a  varying  extent  wasted. 

Pure  ivater  is  the  fir  si  need  of  the  fever  patient  and  should 
be  given  without  stint,  in  small  amounts  frequently  repeated. 
In  cholera,  where  the  sufferer  seems  actually  to  dry  up  be- 
fore our  eyes,  the  most  approved  modern  practice  is  to  give 
sterilized  water  (with  a  little  salt)  under  the  skin  (or  in  the 
veins)  when  it  cannot  be  retained  if  taken  by  the  mouth. 
Milk  has  the  advantage  of  supplying  much  water  and  at  the 
same  time  is  very  nutritious.  Yet  common  milk,  because 
of  its  many  bacteria,  may  be  far  from  being  a  fit  food.  So, 
milk  should  be  from  very  reliable  dairies.  It  requires  to 
be  sterilized  if  at  all  old  or  of  doubtful  quality. 

The  food  chosen  must  be  as  delicate  and  unirritating  as 
possible.  Garden  vegetables  are  to  be  avoided.  Fat  should 
be  used  sparingly  in  acute  fever  cases.  Starch  then  digests 
better  in  many  cases  when  malt  (as  in  the  form  of  a  reliable 
malt  extract)  is  given  with  it.  Chemically  pure  malt-sugar 
(maltose)  and  pure  glucose  are  very  absorbable  and  may  be 


272  DIET 

given  In  small  quantities.  Gelatine  used  moderately  is  well 
borne  and  gives  some  nutriment,  although  it  is  an  insufficient 
food,  as  has  been  explained  above. 

Peptones  and  proprietary  prepared  foods  in  general  are 
better  for  rectal  use  than  for  feeding  by  the  usual  means. 
Better  are  scraped  meat,  broths  delicately  prepared  with 
gentle  heat,  eggs  poached  or  simply  the  whites  of  eggs 
stirred  up  with  ten  times  their  bulk  of  water.  Barley-gruel 
or  sago  long  cooked  are  well  borne  by  most  convalescents. 
Whey-puddings  even  are  well  digested  by  weak  stomachs 
that  crave  a  change.  Highly  spiced  dishes  and  the  messes 
prepared  by  most  pretentious  cooks  are  to  be  shunned. 

In  serious  fever  cases  and  in  instances  of  considerable 
debility,  whiskey  or  brandy  as  well  as  rum  (with  or  without 
milk  and  soda-water)  prove  very  valuable.  Alcohol  does 
not  increase  the  heat  of  the  fever.  In  general,  the  liquor 
that  is  most  agreeable  is  best.  American-made  "  brandy  " 
is  usually  unsatisfactory.  In  fevers,  seltzer-waters  are  very 
agreeable.  Acid  drinks  are  then  both  pleasing  and  bene- 
ficial. Some  find  dilute  (chemically  pure)  hydrochloric 
acid  preferable  to  lemon  juice  as  an  addition  to  cool  water 
for  the  preparation  of  such  drinks.  For  cleansing  the  dry, 
thickened  tongue,  bits  of  lemon  are  useful ;  but  water  made 
slightly  alkaline  by  the  addition  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  is 
more  effective. 

Where  the  stomach  is  greatly  irritated  and  rejects  every- 
thing swallowed,  ice  (from  pure  lakes  or  made  from  dis- 
tilled water)  should  be  crushed  fine  and  swallowed  in  small 
bits.  This  often  suffices,  even  without  giving  chloroform- 
water  at  the  same  time.  Barley-water  (that  has  been  well 
cooked)  is  then  much  better  borne  than  milk.  It  is  desira- 
ble at  times  to  dilute  the  milk  with  lime-water,  artificial  vichy- 
water  or  pure  water,  especially  if  diarrhoea  be  present. 

In  nearly  all  diseases,  pure  milk  affords  a  most  reliable 
food.     Typhoid  cases  usually  thrive  upon  it.     It  is  valuable 


DIET    IN    DISEASE  273 

in  other  diseases  in  and  near  the  alimentary  tract,  where  a 
very  absorbable  food  is  needed  that  causes  no  irritation. 
Then  especially  should  all  vegetables  be  avoided,  and  of 
fruits  only  the  juice  can  be  allowed.  In  convalescence, 
much  albuminous  food  ought  to  be  given. 

In  certain  chronic  diseases,  such  as  tuberculous  consump- 
tion and  other  wasting  diseases,  no  large  amount  of  albu- 
minous substances  is  needed ;  for  the  waste  of  the  body 
is  increased  when  such  food  is  in  excess  of  the  actual  need. 
Yet  fats  in  abundance  and  other  non-albuminous  foods  are 
very  important  in  chronic  diseases.  The  value  of  cod-liver 
oil  in  such  cases  as  it  agrees  with  is  a  very  familiar  fact. 
While  pure  butter  and  olive  oil  are  very  valuable  fats,  they 
should  not  be  soaked  into  the  food  in  cooking  or  by  putting 
fats  upon  hot  food  that  they  are  liable  to  soak  into. 

Dyspepsia  is  such  a  vague  term  that  it  is  necessary  to 
recognize  the  general  nature  of  the  deviation  from  health 
before  the  diet  can  be  properly  regulated.  An  irritable, 
inflammatory  disorder  is  very  different  from  a  bloodless, 
chronic,  toneless  stomach  enfeeblement.  This  latter  sort 
will  allow  the  use  of  stimulants  in  moderation  and  as  much 
albuminous  animal  food  as  can  readily  be  absorbed. 

If  the  appetite  be  capricious,  as  in  a  neurotic  case,  foods 
may  be  tolerated  which  are  usually  rather  indigestible.  If 
the  case  be  of  the  torpid  sort,  scraped  lean  meat  as  well  as 
tender  poultry  and  game  are  very  useful.  We  even  see  such 
cases  at  times  able  to  tolerate  boiled  ham  finely  divided  ! 
Yet  such  things  should  be  allowed  only  as  occasional  relishes 
and  then  experimentally.  If  the  appetite  of  such  '^  dyspep- 
tics "  calls  for  it,  it  is  quite  proper  to  sanction  almost  any 
food  that  is  desired  and  at  the  same  time  is  well  borne. 
Delicate  spices  may  be  allowed,  and  also  salt. 

If  the  case  be  "  gouty,"  as  shown  by  rheumatic  pains,  the 
familiar  brick-dust  sediment  of  urine,  etc.,  the  common  table- 
salt  may  have  chloride  of  lithium  added  to  it  in  equal  parts 
18 


2  74  DIET 

and  the  mixture  used  from  a  salt-cellar  upon  food  instead 
of  the  ordinary  salt.  Alkaline  waters,  such  as  vichy,  may  be 
given  between  meals  and  on  retiring.  A  few  drops  of  hy- 
drochloric acid  may  be  taken  at  the  beginning  of  the  meal 
unless  the  acidity  of  the  stomach  be  excessive.  Artificial 
and  concentrated  foods  are  in  this  stage  undesirable.  Fresh 
air  and  gentle  exercise  in  the  sunlight  are  very  important 
aids  to  improvement.  Further  consideration  of  the  diet 
suitable  for  gouty  cases  will  be  found  on  page  276. 

If,  however,  the  condition  be  one  of  irritation  and  inflam- 
mation, stimulants  are  to  be  used  only  very  cautiously,  and 
the  food  should  be  carefully  considered  so  as  to  eliminate 
anything  irritant.  Vegetables  are  here  usually  undesirable 
because  of  their  especial  liability  to  gaseous  and  acid  fer- 
mentations in  such  cases.  Bread  should  be  dried  and  then 
toasted  and  soaked  in  hot  water  or  weak  tea.  Soups  with 
barley,  rice,  macaroni  and  other  mild  food  substances  are 
here  of  use.  When  flatulency  is  present,  it  may  be  ascribed 
chiefly  to  the  gases  of  fermentation. 

Vegetables  in  general  tend  to  aggravate  this  condition. 
So  does  an  excess  of  fat  and  likewise  starchy  food  when 
imperfectly  cooked.  Fruits  are  not  to  be  used  very  freely, 
especially  when  abounding  in  sugar  or  fibrous  substance. 
Rich,  fat  sauces  and  gravies  are  objectionable  here  as  in 
nearly  all  other  conditions  of  health  or  disease.  Water 
should  not  be  drunk  at  meals  in  these  cases.  Yet  a  large 
cupful  of  warm  water  taken  before  meals  and  at  night  before 
sleeping  serves  a  useful  purpose.  If  the  dyspeptic  or  other 
symptoms,  such  as  acne  eruptions  on  the  face,  appear  to  be 
due  to  defective  teeth,  the  services  of  a  dentist  are  needed. 

Habitual  constipation  is  so  prevalent  among  all  people 
of  all  races  and  classes,  that  a  few  words  of  hygienic  sugges- 
tion are  here  in  place.  The  habits  and  diet  need  to  be  regu- 
lated. The  frequent  use  of  medicines,  even  if  they  be  such 
approved  and  valuable  ones  as  cascara  sagrada  and  other 


DIET    FOR    RELIEVING    CONSTIPATION  275 

mild  laxatives,  is  to  be  restricted.  The  popular  use  of 
much-advertised  pills  and  drastic  purgatives,  as  well  as  the 
habit  of  resorting  to  injections,  is  harmful  and,  in  the  end, 
makes  the  condition  worse  than  in  the  beginning.  The  cus- 
tom of  allowing  several  minutes  after  the  morning  meal, 
with  unvarying  regularity,  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging 
a  movement  of  the  bowels,  is  a  most  valuable  natural  aid. 
False  modesty  should  not  interfere  with  this  nor  cause  one 
to  resist  a  prompt  and  proper  relief  whenever  nature  gives 
an  indication  that  a  movement  of  the  bowels  is  desirable. 

Abundant  pure  cool  water  should  be  drunk,  especially  in 
the  morning  on  rising  from  sleep.  Yet  this  is  not  meant  to 
encourage  the  use,  other  than  occasionally,  of  bitter  or  other 
purgative  waters.  Sufficient  fats  should  be  eaten.  Although 
buttermilk  often  serves  to  secure  a  relaxed  condition  of  the 
bowels  wherever  it  is  well  borne,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  such  changed  milk  acts  because  of  its  numerous  bacte- 
ria and  their  products.  Hence  the  original  milk  from  which 
it  is  derived  should  have  been  from  a  pure  source. 

Figs,  prunes  and  other  dried  or  fresh  fruits,  excepting 
huckleberries,  have  a  general  tendency  to  relax  the  bowels 
as  well  as  to  increase  the  volume  of  their  contents  and  to 
stimulate  the  intestinal  muscular  movements  that  tend  to 
expel  the  contained  food  residue.  Wheatmeal  bread,  rye- 
bread,  oatmeal,  and  other  vegetable  foods  containing  much 
waste  matter,  act  in  the  same  way,  and  are  to  be  recom- 
mended in  cases  of  constipation  if  they  do  not  cause 
irritation. 

If  a  tendency  to  hemorrhoids  be  present,  large,  rapid  and 
heavy  meals  should  be  avoided.  Spices,  especially  pepper, 
as  also  strong  coffee  and  other  stimulants  are  bad  for  those 
having  such  a  tendency.  Unripe  fruits,  salads,  cabbage, 
beans  and  peas  are  not  desirable  articles  of  the  diet  for 
these  cases.     The  diet  should,  in  brief,  be  simple. 

Gentle  exercise,  that   brings  the   abdominal  muscles  into 


276  DIET 

activity,  is  advisable.  Horseback  exercise  is  not  so  good 
as  walking.  It  is  not  advisable  to  walk  long  distances  in 
warm  weather.  Cane-seated  or  hard-seated,  unyielding 
chairs  are  to  be  preferred  to  warm,  upholstered  cushions. 
If  the  necessities  of  the  case  call  for  a  resort  to  the  use  of 
the  customary  injections,  these  are  to  be  small  and  slowly 
introduced.  Cool  or  cold  water  is  in  the  main  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  other  fluids  used. 

In  rheumatic  or  gouty  cases,  diet  and  dry  warmth 
are  of  extreme  importance.  An  abundance  of  pure  water 
should  be  drunk,  yet  not  an  excess  as  in  "  water  cures  " 
which  saturate  the  system  with  water.  If  the  only  water  to 
be  had  is  impure  or  abounds  in  lime,  it  should  be  boiled. 
The  lavish  use  of  alkalies  is  not  desirable.  They  should  be 
taken  only  in  small  quantities.  (See  page  273.)  Overeat- 
ing and  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  are  regarded  as  causing 
these  diseases.  Mental  and  physical  strain  seem  to  have 
the  same  effect  under  some  circumstances  ;  while  temperate 
living,  gentle  exercise  and  out-of-doors  life  in  dry,  sunshiny 
weather  appear  to  lessen  the  tendency.     (See  page  38.) 

A  mixed  diet  is  the  best,  and  the  patient  must  be  kept 
well  nourished.  Sugar  should  be  used  very  sparingly,  and 
sugary  fruits  are  undesirable.  Starchy  food  should  not  be 
taken  in  unusually  large  amount,  and  pastry  is  to  be  avoided. 
Cheese  and  very  concentrated  albuminous  foods  are  not  to 
be  advised.  Ebstein's  view,  that  fats  are  here  of  value  if 
well  borne,  meets  the  approval  of  many.  Sweet  wines, 
strong  wines  such  as  port,  and  especially  strong  malt  liquors 
are  generally  regarded  as  potent  in  causing  gout  and  rheu- 
matism. The  patient  is  to  be  cautioned  against  using  such 
things  to  any  extent.  Champagne  seems  to  be  here,  as  in 
general  for  all  other  healthy  or  diseased  states,  the  worst 
possible  beverage.     It  is  usually  inferior. 

Warm  clothing,  so  adjusted  as  not  to  cause  sweating  and 
chill,  is  necessary.     The  general  location,  as  also  the  walls 


DIET    IN    DISEASE  277 

and  basements  of  buildings  in  which  the  rheumatic  person 
lives,  should  be  very  dry.  Observance  of  the  principles 
above  indicated  aids  to  prevent  the  development  of  a  tend- 
ency to  these  diseases.  Temperate  living  and  the  regular, 
free  use  of  pure  drinking  water  afford  the  best  safeguards. 
It  is  proper  to  advise  against  the  use  of  the  various  open  or 
secret  preparations  of  colchicine  and  other  strong  and  dan- 
gerous drugs  used  against  these  very  common  diseases. 

Kidney  disease,  when  chronic,  requires  that  the  entire 
body  be  as  well  nourished  as  possible,  yet  with  extreme  care 
to  avoid  excesses  or  even  slight  indiscretions  in  diet.  The 
diseased  state  of  such  important  organs  makes  it  difficult 
to  keep  up  the  nutrition  of  the  system.  Long  experience 
teaches  that  we  must  not  take  away  the  albuminous  foods  ; 
but  it  is  wise  to  restrict  these,  while  not  making  very  great 
changes  in  the  usual  diet  unless  that  be  excessive. 

Alcoholic  and  other  stimulants  are  to  be  avoided,  and 
powerful  drugs  used  only  when  extreme  need  arises.  The 
best  drink  is  pure  water ;  yet  that  should  not  be  drunk  in 
excess.  Many  a  case  has  had  a  too  early,  fatal  ending  be- 
cause of  "water  cures  "  where  large  amounts  of  (usually)  very 
good  water  are  swallowed  in  a  very  injudicious  manner. 
These  diseases  differ  much  in  their  character.  The  food 
that  suits  one  given  case  may  not  be  good  for  all. 

Milk,  as  proved  by  the  prolonged  observations  of  all  able 
physicians,  is  usually  the  best  food.  The  use  of  rich,  pure 
milk  taken  at  intervals  of  two  or  more  hours,  in  small  por- 
tions to  the  extent  of  two  quarts  or  more  daily,  and  with  it 
bread  to  satisfy  the  average  appetite,  gives  nearly  enough 
food  and  proves  usually  to  be  a  very  valuable  diet  for  such 
cases.  If  meat  and  albuminous  vegetables  are  added,  this 
must  be  done  cautiously.  Fat  should  also  be  given  if  well 
borne  by  the  stomach. 

The  value  of  free  movement  of  the  bowels  must  not  be 
forgotten  at  any  time.     An  "  easy  "  condition  of  the  bowels 


278  DIET 

tends  to  lessen  the  amount  of  water  and  consequent  press- 
ure in  the  passively  congested  veins  of  kidney  disease,  as 
also  in  heart  disease  and  other  troubles  of  the  circulation. 
Eggs  are  for  such  diseases  a  much  better  food  when  cooked 
than  when  raw.  Food  for  people  with  kidney  disease  should 
be  simple,  well  cooked  and  otherwise  digestible.  Warm 
baths,  gentle  exercise,  warm  and  dry  dwellings,  together 
with  carefully  adjusted  clothing  such  as  will  maintain  the 
warmth  and  yet  not  induce  a  chill  from  perspiration,  are 
all  important  in  the  care  of  these  cases.  Cases  with  marked 
kidney  symptoms  may  live  for  years  if  due  attention  be 
given  to  hygienic  management. 

In  diabetes,  it  is  desirable  to  lessen  the  starchy  and 
sweet  foods,  but  not  wholly  to  restrict  them.  In  every  case, 
it  is  well  to  be  gradual  in  enforcing  the  exclusion  of  such 
things  from  the  daily  food.  An  abrupt  and  complete 
change  to  a  meat  diet  (from  which  everything  else  is  ex- 
cluded) may  cause  the  dreaded  brain  symptoms  of  diabetes 
to  come  very  speedily.  Even  a  few  ounces  of  bread  may 
be  allowed  in  mild  cases. 

It  is  better  of  course  that  ordinary  flour  be  replaced  by 
gluten  in  the  bread,  so  far  as  the  patient  will  tolerate  this. 
Yet  the  rigorous  exclusion  of  a  food  because  analysis  shows 
it  to  contain  carbohydrates  is  not  usually  the  wisest  plan  in 
cases  that  are  seen  early  in  their  course.  Thus  the  sugar 
present  in  milk,  while  causing  us  to  recommend  that  not 
much  milk  be  used,  should  however  not  lead  us  to  prohibit 
its  use  altogether.  Koumiss  and  other  fermented  milk  have 
less  sugar  than  the  milk  originally  contained. 

The  bulky  vegetables  and  roots  in  general  (such  as 
parsnips,  carrots,  beets,  etc.),  as  also  potatoes,  are  to  be 
prohibited.  The  green  vegetables  (such  as  spinach,  lettuce, 
water-cress,  and  also  radishes,  may  be  alloived.  Champagne, 
sweet  wines  and  cordials,  as  well  as  most  kinds  of  beer, 
should  be  strictly  excluded.     Chocolate  has  too  much  sugar 


DIABETES — REDUCING    FAT  279 

to  be  permitted.  Yet  the  small  amount  of  sugar  in  cocoa 
infusion  should  not  cause  it  to  be  excluded  altogether.  No 
sugar  is  to  be  allowed  with  tea  and  coffee.  The  use  of 
saccharin  for  the  sweetening  of  drinks  is  generally  approved. 
It  contains  no  carbohydrates.  One  grain  of  it  serves  to 
sweeten  two  cups  of  tea  or  coffee.  Honey  should  be  ex- 
cluded ;  but  glycerine  may  be  used  for  sweetening. 

Sour  fruits,  almonds,  almond-meal  bread,  gluten  bread 
and  bran  bread  are  useful  and  may  be  ingeniously  adapted, 
but  do  not  always  enable  the  patient  to  bear  satisfactorily 
with  the  total  deprivation  from  the  use  of  ordinary  bread, 
meal  and  starchy  foods.  Of  the  two  most  recent  products 
introduced  as  substitutes  for  ordinary  bread — bread  made 
from  the  soya  bean  and  that  made  from  aleuronat — the  latter 
seems  preferable.  Ebstein  and  others  report  continued 
satisfaction  from  its  use.  Meat,  with  as  much  oily  and  fatty 
food  as  can  be  borne,  must  form  the  main  part  of  the  diet 
in  cases  of  diabetes.  Since  much  water  is  needed,  that 
should  be  of  good  quality.     Gaseous  waters  are  allowable. 

For  fat  people  who  wish  to  reduce  somewhat  their 
excessive  amount  of  fat,  the  "  Banting  "  method  is  the  most 
martyring.  It  may  be  dangerous  if  carried  very  far.  It 
calls  for  an  excess  of  lean  meat  or  white  fish  in  the  food  and 
does  not  permit  much  fluid.  A  little  red  wine  and  rum  or 
brandy  may  be  taken.  Very  little  fat,  starch  or  sugar  should 
be  allowed.  The  results  may  be  very  successful  in  lessen- 
ing the  amount  of  fat  in  strong,  suitable  cases.  But  much 
determination  and  will-power  are  necessary  with  this  method. 
It  is  apt  to  cause  indigestion  and  more  or  less  derangement 
of  various  organs  of  the  body. 

Ebstein's  method  is  a  little  better  for  those  who  can 
digest  considerable  fat.  The  allowance  comprises  much  more 
fat  than  is  eaten  by  the  average  person.  Very  little  starchy 
food  should  be  taken,  and  all  sweets  or  sweet  fruits  ought  to 
be  avoided.    The  amount  of  albumen  is  also  made  very  small. 


28o  DIET 

Voit's  method,  as  applied  by  Oertel,  Schweninger  and 
others,  allows  considerably  more  albumen  than  the  healthy 
body  requires.  The  amount  of  fat  in  the  food  must  be 
quite  small,  and  very  little  starch  or  sugar  is  eaten,  less  than 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  being  allowed  in  a  day.  Delicate 
vegetables,  having  very  slight  nutritive  quality,  and  fruits 
that  are  not  sweet  can  form  a  portion  of  the  diet  ;  for  they 
produce  a  sense  of  "  fulness  "  without  adding  to  the  nutri- 
tion of  the  body  except  by  their  salts.  This  method  is 
better  than  the  two  preceding.  Liberal  exercise  is  advisable 
with  it. 

Some  of  the  '*  cures  "  practised  at  various  continental 
European  "watering-places,"  as  for  example  at  Carlsbad, 
are  serviceable  in  reducing  fat,  simply  because  they  are 
starvation  processes  which  people  tolerate  as  they  would  not 
at  home.  Those  who  are  heavy  eaters,  yet  living  a  seden- 
tary life  ;  people  absorbed  in  affairs  who  are  so  indifferent 
to  every  advice  as  to  neglect  all  exercise,  even  rejecting 
every  opportunity  of  enjoying  the  most  valuable  of  all  usual 
exercises — namely,  that  coming  from  a  brisk  walk  in  the 
open  air — such  persons  often  profit  by  these  water  cures. 

In  these  hygienically  favorable,  park-like  places,  they 
follow  the  fashion  that  prevails  there  and  accordingly 
exercise  somewhat.  This  is  partly  because  they  are  in- 
fluenced by  example,  and  partly  by  reason  of  the  fact  that 
they  find  little  else  to  do.  In  any  case,  they  get  some 
physical  exercise.  This,  with  the  restricted  diet,  tends  to 
reduce  their  excessive  fat.  The  results  are  not  always 
beneficial.  Some  come  away  in  a  shattered  condition. 
Especially  where  heart-disease  or  other  organic  trouble 
exists,  should  careful  consultation  with  impartial,  competent 
advisers  be  had  before  any  unusually  rigorous  procedures 
are  undergone. 

It  is  in  general  best  to  "  make  haste  very  slowly  "  in 
attempting  to  reduce  superfluous  flesh.     Enough  has  been 


REDUCING    OR    INCREASING    FAT  281 

explained  above  to  indicate  that  the  reliance  must  be  upon 
diet  combined  with  exercise.  Sufficient  time  however 
should  be  allowed  for  nature  to  do  the  work  very  gradually. 
The  essential  principle  is  that  the  body  substance  must  be 
used  up  slowly  in  the  vital  processes,  and  not  quite  enough 
nutriment  supplied  in  the  food  to  restore  the  excess  of  fat. 

It  is  of  prime  importance  for  the  future  health  to  avoid 
violent  exercise  if  the  previous  life  has  been  purely  seden- 
tary, and  particularly  when  one  is  not  robust.  One  should 
begin  with  gentle  exercise  such  as  walking  in  the  open  air 
at  as  rapid  a  pace  as  is  comfortable  and  does  not  make  the 
heart-beats  irregular  nor  cause  them  to  increase  very  much. 
Gentle  exercise  is  to  be  advised  even  in  heart-disease. 
Walking  briskly  with  the  shoulders  squared  back  is  a  more 
valuable  exercise  here  than  either  bicycling  or  horseback 
riding.  Yet  these,  too,  are  excellent  exercises.  The  amount 
of  physical  exertion  is  to  be  increased  gradually,  with  a 
careful  avoidance  of  excess  or  severe  fatigue. 

At  the  same  time  with  the  increase  of  exercise,  the  diet 
is  lessened.  The  food  is  very  gradually  reduced  in  amount. 
Less  albumen  is  eaten  daily  than  before  and  very  much  less 
of  fats,  sugar,  sweet  fruits  or  starches.  No  excess  of  water 
should  be  drunk.  No  alcoholic  liquor  is  advisable  ;  and 
sweet  wines,  beer  and  chocolate,  as  also  sweet  foods  in 
general,  cakes,  puddings  and  pastry  are  to  be  avoided. 
Bread  and  butter,  potatoes,  hominy  and  rice  make  fat,  and 
hence  should  be  eaten  only  sparingly.  Early  rising  and 
cold  bathing  (while  at  the  same  time  swimming  for  exercise, 
if  possible)  are  to  be  recommended.  High  mountain  resi- 
dence is  of  some  value,  but  probably  most  so  by  reason  of 
the  more  nervous  activity  that  it  promotes  and  which 
increases  the  vigor  and  also  the  extent  of  the  exercise  taken. 

Lean  people,  who  wish  to  accumulate  fat,  are  to  live  a 
more  inactive  life  and  to  prolong  sleep  and  rest  as  much 
as  they  can.     They  are  not  to  exercise  much.      The  more 


282  DIET 

restful  they  are,  the  better  it  is  for  the  accumulation  of  fat. 
Water,  milk,  chocolate,  strong  beer,  ale  and  porter  may  be 
taken  liberally  between  meals  and  on  going  to  bed.  Five 
or  even  six  meals  may  be  taken  during  the  twenty-four 
hours.  Some  hominy  and  milk  or  butter  and  toasted  bread 
with  sweetened  coffee  and  milk  (also  perhaps  a  little  meat) 
may  be  taken  before  rising.  Oysters  are  desirable  when 
eaten  raw.  Bread  and  rich  milk  or  other  desired  food 
should  be  taken  shortly  before  going  to  bed  if  this  late 
eating  agrees  with  the  digestion. 

No  less  than  the  usual  allowance  of  meat  should  be  taken, 
and  with  it  all  the  fatty  food  that  one  can  well  digest. 
Bread,  especially  when  well  toasted,  sweet  fruits,  such  as 
figs,  plums  and  bananas,  if  desired  and  well  borne,  are  all 
of  value  in  aiding  to  lay  on  fat.  A  dry  and  cool  seashore 
region  or  at  least  one  having  cool  nights  is  favorable.  A 
malarial  district  is  particularly  to  be  avoided. 

Drinking- Water 

Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  substance,  by  weight,  of  the 
human  body  is  in  the  form  of  water  included  in  the  com- 
position of  the  tissues.  Lean  muscle  substance  contains  75 
per  cent,  of  water,  and  the  blood  has  78  per  cent.  To 
supply  the  daily  needs  and  replace  the  water  lost  by  ex- 
cretion, an  adult  has  to  take  into  the  body  perhaps  more 
than  a  gallon  of  water  daily.  Severe  labor,  especially  in 
warm  weather,  may  cause  over  half  as  much  again  to  be 
needed.  With  the  food,  we  receive  perhaps  half  of  the 
needed  amount  of  water  ;  yet  the  water  consumed  in  and 
with  the  food  may  often  be  considerably  less  than  half  of 
what  the  body  needs.  Water  and  other  fluids  make  up 
more  or  less  sufficiently  the  balance  needed. 

In  any  case,  enough  should  be  drunk  to  prevent  the 
urine  from  becoming  so  concentrated  that  it  has,  at  the 
body  temperature,  a  specific   gravity  much  above   1,020,  as 


PURE    WATER    NECESSARY  283 

is  readily  recognized  by  the  ordinary  urinometer.  Every 
portion  of  the  water  that  one  drinks  should  be  exceedingly 
pure.  The  fewer  bacteria  present,  the  better  ;  and  none  of 
these  should  be  of  harmful  kinds. 

If  not  from  the  purest  source,  drinking-water  should 
have  been  boiled.  The  process  of  boiling  renders  it  health- 
ful, even  though  it  have  been  badly  polluted  by  any  organic 
filth.  Yet  boiling  does  not  very  much  lessen  the  amount  of 
any  (non-gaseous)  chemical  substances  present  other  than 
lime  and  magnesia  carbonates.  Boiled  water  is  palatable  to 
those  who  are  used  to  it.  It  is  hygienically  preferable  to  any 
filtered  water.  The  porcelain  or  "porous  clay"  filters,  the 
only  ordinary  kind  that  should  be  at  all  relied  upon  to 
remove  all  bacteria,  are  so  slow  in  their  action  that  they 
cannot  be  intrusted  to  all  servants.  Filters  are  more  fully 
considered  in  the  following  chapter.  The  great  hygienic 
value  of  distilled  water  is  also  indicated  there. 

People  reason  wrongly  who  infer  that  we  receive  impor- 
tant nutritive  substances  from  natural  waters  that  can  be 
got  in  no  other  way.  Nearly  five  per  cent,  of  the  body 
weight  is  composed  of  salts.  In  the  2^  or  3  pints  of  urine 
coming  daily  from  a  healthy  adult,  there  are  contained  nearly 
1,000  grains  (or  more  than  2  ounces)  of  solids  consisting 
chiefly  of  the  salts  produced  from  the  combustion  and  waste 
of  the  body  tissues. 

The  daily  allowance  of  drinking-water  for  a  healthy  adult 
averages  less  than  one  gallon.  Now,  the  most  liked  of  the 
pure  natural  waters,  sold  in  bottles  or  in  bulk,  and  which 
many  of  the  most  careful  people  use  regularly  as  an  ideally 
healthful  beverage,  contain  in  one  gallon  only  from  i  to  10 
grains  of  salts  of  any  and  all  kinds.  A  mineral  water  that  has 
more  than  100  grains  of  salts  in  the  gallon  is  a  very  "  strong  " 
water  and  should  be  used  only  very  sparingly.  We  re- 
peatedly see  digestive  and  other  disorders  induced  by  indis- 
creet drinking  of  large  quantities  of  such  waters.     It  would 


284  DIET 

require  enormous  quantities  of  ordinary  waters  to  supply 
all  the  salts  needed  by  the  body.  For  these  reasons  it  is 
clearly  unwise  for  us  to  rely  largely  upon  drinking-water 
for  supplying  the  salts  needed  daily  to  replenish  the  body 
loss. 

In  a  mixed  diet,  all  the  salts  needed  are  supplied  in  ample 
amount  ;  yet  it  seems  desirable  to  prescribe  at  times  cer- 
tain very  carefully  selected  waters  in  particular  ailments, 
where  the  case  is  under  trained  observation.  The  various 
.advertised  waters  are  almost  always  inferior  to  their  preten- 
sions. This  is  notably  the  case  with  the  ''  natural  lithia 
waters."  Salty  waters  are  not  at  all  desirable,  and  the 
half-ounce  of  common  salt  needed  daily  can  perfectly  well 
be  taken  in  and  on  our  food. 


WATER    AND    WATER   SUPPLIES 

That  all  of  the  water  supplied  must  be  of  the  very  best 
quality  is  one  of  the  uncontested  and  fundamental  truths  of 
hygiene.  Even  those  who  profess  to  believe  that  contami- 
nated water  is  not  necessarily  a  cause  of  disease,  admit  that 
the  purest  water  is  the  best  for  all  purposes. 

The  majority  of  a  population  are  imprudent  and  liable  to 
drink  cool  and  agreeably  tasting  water  coming  from  any 
hydrant,  however  dangerous  the  water  may  be  at  a  particular 
place  and  time.  Whether  it  be  used  to  wash  floors  and 
sprinkle  streets  or  to  cleanse  vegetables  and  for  the  various 
domestic  and  manufacturing  purposes,  the  water  should  be 
pure.  It  deserves  to  be  mentioned  here  that  various  inde- 
pendent and  wholly  reliable  observers  have  reported  cases 
of  more  or  less  familiar  diseases  due  to  bathing  in  impure 
water.  Even  for  the  use  of  domestic  animals,  water  ought 
to  be  of  good  quality. 

Lead  is  a  chemical  that  we  must  always  zealously  guard 
against  in  our  drinking-waters  ;  for,  if  even  a  very  small  frac- 
tion of  a  grain  of  lead  be  in  every  gallon  of  water,  this  will 
in  the  end  be  harmful.  The  presence  of  copper  is  less 
common,  but  is  bad  in  any  case.  Iron  salts,  occurring  as 
they  do  in  many  waters  of  deep  origin,  are  undesirable  when 
present  in  any  considerable  amount.  So,  too,  are  alka- 
lies. In  some  parts  of  the  dry  regions  far  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River,  the  water  is  often  undrinkable  because  of  its 
great  alkalinity.  When  lime  and  magnesium  are  very  abun- 
dant in  a  water,  it  is  called  hard.  Hard  water  may  be 
valued  by  some  stock-breeders  as  making  their  colts  and 
calves  develop  firmer  bones.       Yet   for   domestic  and    in- 


286  WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 

dustrial   purposes,  such    hardness    is    a    serious   drawback 
which  usually  proves  very  costly. 

Lime  is  the  main  cause  of  hardness.  The  sulphate  of  lime,  together 
with  some  of  the  carbonate  of  lime,  tends  to  form  a  hard  scale  on 
boilers,  partly  because  of  the  evaporation  of  the  steam.  This  scaling  is  a 
great  annoyance  and  also  increases  the  liability  to  explosion  through 
stopping  up  pipes  of  boilers.  Of  these  two  salts,  the  carbonate  is  the 
less  soluble  ;  yet  its  solubility  is  much  increased  by  the  presence  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas  in  the  water.  This  gas  is  present  in  natural,  untreated 
waters  and  is  driven  off  by  boiling.  Of  the  total  lime  and  magnesia 
present,  it  is  usual  to  class  as  temporary  hardness  that  portion  which 
can  be  precipitated  by  boiling,  The  remainder  is  called  permanent 
hardness. 

To  reduce  its  hardness,  water  is  at  times  boiled  before  using.  This 
lessens  the  liability  to  the  formation  of  scale  in  boilers.  It  also  im- 
proves water  for  drinking  and  cooking  purposes.  By  this  heating,  the 
carbonic  acid  has  been  driven  out  of  the  water.  Consequently  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  its  lime  carbonate  is  no  longer  in  solution  and  can 
be  removed  by  straining.  The  usual  and  cheapest  way  is  to  reduce  the 
amount  of  temporary  hardness  by  the  addition  of  freshly  prepared 
milk  of  lime.     The  process  must  always  be  done  in  the  cold. 

To  counteract  the  permanent  hardness  (that  due  to  the  presence  of 
the  sulphate  of  lime  or  magnesium),  we  have  to  add  carbonate  of  soda. 
Of  this,  there  are  needed  2.8  parts  of  crystalline  carbonate  of  soda 
(sal  soda)  for  each  part  of  the  sulphates  of  lime  or  magnesium.  For 
each  part  of  the  carbonates  of  lime  or  magnesium,  o.  56  parts  of  fresh 
quicklime  must  be  allowed.  This  use  of  lime  actually  lessens  the 
total  amount  of  lime  dissolved  in  the  water,  because  that  which  is  added 
takes  up  the  carbonic  acid. 

By  such  precipitation  and  also  by  sedimentation  induced  at 
times  also  by  the  addition  of  alum  or  of  iron,  turbid  waters  can 
be  rendered  purer.  These  added  salts  form  hydrates  and, 
to  a  certain  extent,  organic  compounds  which  mechanically 
carry  down  minute  particles  and  a  varying  percentage  of  mi- 
croorganisms. If  the  precipitate  falls  upon  sand  or  broken 
coke,  etc.,  it  there  forms  a  felt-like  coating  through  which 
only  a  few  bacteria  can  pass  and  which  holds  back  sus- 
pended particles. 


MEANS    OF    IMPROVING    WATER  287 

This  fact  explains  the  action  of  several  kinds  of  large 
filters,  all  very  much  alike  and  which  may  be  used  for  com- 
munities of  considerable  size.  Their  value  lies  in  the 
mechanical  separation  of  particles  of  matter  that  are  in  sus- 
pension. When  of  good  quality,  they  hold  back  a  very  large 
portion  of  the  disease-producing  bacteria  that  may  be  pres- 
ent. Yet  a  few  of  these  harmful  germs  may  pass  through 
by  reason  of  imperfect  filtration  ;  for  the  minute  amounts 
of  chemicals  used  are  quite  insufficient  to  destroy  the 
disease  germs.  Some  of  these  harmful  bacteria  also  get 
through  because  of  flaws  that  occasionally  occur  in  such 
filters.  Not  even  permanganate  of  potash  (so  effective 
against  organic  matter,  ammonia,  etc.)  nor  any  other  chem- 
ical— if  used  in  the  very  weak  proportions  permissible 
from  a  hygienic  standpoint — can  be  relied  upon  to  in- 
sure the  speedy  death  of  all  harmful  germs  in  an  infected 
water. 

The  various  recommendations,  going  the  round  of  the 
daily  and  other  papers,  informing  people  that  equal  parts  of 
wine  and  water'  form  a  fluid  in  which  bacteria  of  disease  do 
not  long  remain  alive,  are  not  altogether  to  be  trusted  ;  for 
a  bacteriologist's  skill  is  needed  to  interpret  for  each  situa- 
tion the  results  of  the  more  or  less  reliable  experiments 
on  which  these  recommendations  are  founded.  Some  bac- 
teria do  perish  speedily  in  wine.  Yet  the  majority  do  not. 
Hence  those  persons  who  hail  with  satisfaction  such  a 
sound  pretext  for  drinking  wine  would  have  a  safer  bever- 
age if  the  water  (to  be  mingled  with  their  wine)  were  treated 
by  boiling  beforehand. 

Boiled  or  distilled  waters  that  have  been  aerified,  by  the 
use  of  bellows  or  by  the  more  elaborate  means  employed  by 
those  who  produce  distilled  water  on  a  large  scale,  are  both 
palatable  and  wholly  safe  to  drink.  Heating,  even  if  only  for 
a  moment,  destroys  the  harmful  germs.  Aerifying  restores 
the  two  per  cent.,  more  or  less,  of  oxygen  driven  off  by  the 


288  WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 

heating,  and  the  absence  of  which  causes  the  insipid  taste 
of  some  boiled  water. 

Bacteriological   Examination  of  Water 

The  simplest  bacteriological  test  is  to  take  a  definite  small  quantity, 
either  a  drop,  a  cubic  centimeter  or  whatever  amount  of  the  water  we 
choose  to  add,  by  means  of  a  cool  pipette,  or  other  unvarying  measure 
that  has  always  been  sterilized  by  heating  it  beforehand.  This  water  is 
mixed  with  \\(\\xe^Qd.  nutrient  gelatine  (spoken  of  later,  in  the  chapter  on 
Bacteria).  This  mixture  of  water  and  gelatine  is  then  allowed  to  solidify 
on  the  side  of  the  nearly  horizontal,  cotton-plugged  tube,  or  preferably 
is  poured  into  a  small  flat  covered  glass  dish  that  has  previously  been 
exposed  to  a  heat  sufficient  to  have  killed  all  possible  germs,  and  then 
it  is  cooled  to  the  room  temperature. 

If  proper  precautions  are  taken  to  exclude  stray  germs  from  the  air 
and  from  other  sources,  we  find  that,  from  the  second  day  onward,  the 
thus  cultivable  germs  of  the  original  water  manifest  themselves  by  hav- 
ing developed  into  peculiar  "colonies"  (see  chapter  on  Bacteria) 
which  can  be  recognized  and  further  studied' by  any  one  familiar  with 
the  work. 

By  this  method  and  its  modifications,  cholera  bacteria  are 
recognized  with  much  greater  ease  than  are  the  typhoid  bac- 
teria. Yet  even  these  latter  have  apparently  been  recog- 
nized a  number  of  times  by  competent  observers.  Typhoid 
bacteria  are  often  counterfeited  by  harmless  varieties  of 
water  bacteria,  and  no  process  is  sufficiently  reliable  for  all 
the  cases  where  we  try  to  find  these.  They  are  further 
spoken  of  in  the  chapter  on  Infectious  Diseases. 

Bacteriological  investigation  of  water  has,  accordingly, 
like  the  chemical  methods,  only  a  partial  value  in  most  cases. 
This  is  especially  true  when  people  who  are  not  experts 
attempt  such  tests.  In  case  of  two  or  more  waters  to  be 
compared,  the  one  which  yields  the  fewest  varieties  and  the 
smallest  number  of  bacteria,  is  generally  the  best.  If  a  lake 
has  more  than  loo  bacteria  in  one  cubic  centimeter  (one- 
fourth  drachm)  of  its  water,  or  if  a  river  has  more  than  i,ooo 


AIDS    TO    JUDGING    A    WATER  289 

bacteria  in  each  cubic  centimeter,  the  water  must  be  re- 
garded as  inferior  to  the  highest  standard. 

The  best  ground-water  and  mountain  lakes  have  the  low- 
est number  of  bacteria  among  ordinary  sources.  Some  deep 
springs,  however,  are  absolutely  free  of  all  bacteria  or  other 
forms  of  organic  life  that  can  be  detected  by  the  use  of  a 
microscope  or  by  culture  methods.  Such  natural  water  can 
be  used  with  the  absolute  certainty  that,  in  its  fresh  state,  it 
carries  no  infection  and  is  exceedingly  wholesome. 

Rivers  in  wild  country  usually  have  very  few  bacteria, 
when  pure  and  under  average  conditions  of  rainfall.  The 
same  river,  further  down  in  its  course  and  having  in  its 
valley  large  populations  and  industries,  may  contain  many 
times  the  number  of  bacteria  that  were  present  in  the  purer 
water  nearer  the  source. 

Manured  and  cultivated  soils  cause  large  numbers  of  bac- 
teria to  be  present  in  the  rivers  into  which  they  drain.  This 
is  especially  the  case  after  rains  that  are  so  copious  as  to 
wash  filth  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  into  the  stream. 

Chemical   Examination    of  Water 

Undue  importance  must  not  be  attached  to  the  chemical 
determination  of  the  amount  of  organic  matter  present  in 
any  given  sample  of  water.  Like  the  biological  examina- 
tion, this  has  no  absolute  value  in  the  majority  of  cases.  A 
visit  to  the  lake,  well  or  other  source,  with  a  careful  inspec- 
tion of  the  ground  that  drains  into  these  sources  of  supply,  is 
of  very  much  more  value  in  enabling  an  expert  to  form  an 
opinion  as  to  the  hygienic  merits  of  a  water  supply. 

It  is  true  that,  as  a  rule,  the  best  water  shows  the  best 
results  even  on  a  single  analysis.  Still,  a  contaminated  water 
may  reveal  a  relatively  smaller  amount  of  ammonias  and 
other  organic  matter  than  the  same  water  contains  at  a  time 
when  it  is  not  contaminated.  Furthermore,  it  is  observed 
that  chemists  of  good  training,  in  testing  samples  taken  at 
19 


290  WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 

the  same  instant  from  a  given  source,  differ  at  times  consid- 
erably in  determinations  of  the  amount  of  organic  matter 
present. 

The  mere  quantity  of  organic  matter  contained  in  a  water 
is  not  necessarily  a  guide  to  the  degree  of  the  danger.  The 
harmful  quality  of  the  organic  matter  present  can  only  be 
partially  recognized  by  chemistry.  Any  danger  of  becom- 
ing infected  with  typhoidal,  choleraic  or  other  diseases  by 
the  use  of  an  infected  water  depends  solely  (so  far  as  the 
water  is  concerned)  upon  the  living  presence  of  the  causa- 
tive bacteria  of  the  disease.  Chemistry  is  quite  unable  to 
detect  the  presence  of  these  in  any  case  and  may  even  be 
misleading  in  several  ways.  The  main  practical  value  of 
the  chemical  examination  lies  in  the  tests  for  the  recogni- 
tion of  mineral  substances  that  may  be  present. 

To  test  water  for  lead,  copper  and  zinc,  evaporate  a  gallon  or 
more  of  the  water  with  the  addition  of  nitric  acid  and  solution  of  am- 
monium nitrate  in  a  porcelain  evaporating-dish  till  less  than  two  ounces 
remain.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  introduced  into  this  (in  a  glass)  for 
several  minutes  causes  a  black  precipitate  if  lead  or  copper  is  present. 
This  is  filtered,  washed  and  then  dissolved  in  hot  dilute  nitric  acid.  To 
the  solution  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  are  added.  Lead,  if  present, 
thereupon  gives  a  white  precipitate. 

The  solution  is  then  filtered  through  filter-paper.  On  the  addition  to 
it  of  ferrocyanide  of  potash,  a  red-brown  precipitate  or  discoloration 
results  if  copper  be  present.  If  either  copper  or  lead  be  present,  a  water 
is  to  be  considered  unfit  for  drinking. 

Zinc  is  tested  for  by  heating  the  filtrate  coming  through  the  filter 
after  we  have  added  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  When  the  gas  is  driven 
off  from  the  solution  so  that  no  odor  comes  from  it,  an  excess  of  caustic 
soda  solution  is  added.  This  is  filtered  and  then  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
is  introduced  into  the  solution.  A  white  precipitate  is  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  zinc. 

To  determine  how  much  lead  is  present  (copper  and  tin  being  absent), 
a  colorimetric  test  suffices.  This  consists  of  a  comparison  between  a 
tube  of  the  water  being  tested  and  several  tubes  each  of  which  contains 
the  same  amount  of  acetate  of  lead  solution  (but  which  is  of  a  different 
strength  in  each  of  these  tubes).     The  standard  is  given  by  preparing 


CHEMICAL    TESTS 


291 


the  solution  from  a  definite  amount  of  lead,  say  one  grain,  dissolved  in 
an  excess  of  acetic  acid. 

This  is  diluted  with  one  gallon  of  water.  A  carefully  measured 
quantity  (into  each  tube  a  different  amount)  of  this  standard  solution  is 
then  added  to  each  of  the  comparison  tubes.  These  are  next  filled  up 
to  a  uniform  level  with  distilled  water.  All  the  separate  solutions  in 
the  tubes  then  have  one-fifth  of  their  bulk  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
water  added.  The  same  amount  is  added  to  the  water  being  tested  for 
lead,  which  water  is  beforehand  acidulated  with  acetic  acid.  Of  this 
acidulated  water  to  be  tested,  the  same  amount  is  taken  as  of  all  the 
waters  in  the  several  test-glasses  that  serve  as  comparisons.  Knowing 
the  exact  amount  in  these,  the  determination  of  the  amount  of  lead  in 
the  water  to  be  tested  is  easy. 

Another  (but  a  less  exact)  test  for  lead  is  to  add  a  drop  of  ammonium 
sulphide  to  a  suspected  water  in  a  tall  tube.  A  blackish  precipitate 
may  be  due  to  lead,  copper  or  iron.  If  copper  be  the  only  metal  pres- 
ent, the  precipitate  will  dissolve  upon  the  addition  of  a  small  amount 
of  a  strong  solution  of  cyanide  of  potash.  The  addition  of  a  little  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid  causes  the  precipitate  to  disappear  at  once  if  iron  be 
the  only  metal  that  caused  it.  This  acid  does  not  remove  a  precipitate 
due  to  lead.     (For  testing  utensils,  etc.,  for  lead,  see  page  252.) 

Iron  is  tested  for  by  evaporating  half  a  pint  of  water  to  dryness  in  a 
porcelain  dish.  Then  the  dried  residue  is  dissolved  in  hot  dilute  nitric 
acid.  A  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  ferrocyanide  of  potash  are  added. 
Iron,  if  present,  causes  a  blue  color  ;  or,  if  only  a  minute  amount  be 
present,  a  greenish  color  is  seen. 

Lime  is  best  tested  for  if  we  first  add  hydrochloric  acid  to  the  water 
until  an  acid  reaction  is  recognized  by  the  use  of  test-paper.  There- 
upon the  water  is  heated  and  ammonia  is  added  to  alkalinity.  Then 
one  per  cent,  of  oxalate  of  ammonia  in  solution  is  added.  A  white  pre- 
cipitate is  due  to  the  presence  of  lime.  Wilson  states  that  6  grains  in 
the  gallon  cause  a  turbidity  ;  16  grains  a  distinct  precipitate  ;  30  grains 
a  large  precipitate,  soluble  in- nitric  acid. 

Magnesium  is  recognized  by  testing  the  filtrate  from  the  above.  A 
few  drops  of  a  solution  of  sodium  phosphate  are  then  added  and  well 
stirred  in.  A  white  crystalline  precipitate  of  amraonio-magnesian  phos- 
phate forms  within  twenty-four  hours. 

Chlorine  (as  chlorides)  is  tested  for  by  acidulating  two  ounces  of 
water  with  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid.  Then  a  little  of  a  five  per  cent, 
silver  nitrate  solution  is  added.  If  chlorine  be  present,  the  white,' 
fleecy  silver  chloride  is  formed.     It  is  soluble  in  an  excess  of  ammonia. 


292 


WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 


The  hardness  of  a  water  can  be  roughly  compared  with  that  of  a 
water  of  approved  quality  by  seeing  how  much  more  of  a  one  per  cent, 
solution  of  soap  in  dilute  alcohol  is  required  by  the  one  than  by  the 
other  in  order  to  cause  a  durable  lather  on  shaking  the  waters  in  sepa- 
rate test-tubes  or  bottles.  The  term,  one  degree  of  hard7iess  used  by 
many  chemists  means  that  a  water  has  one  grain  of  carbonate  of  lime 
(or  its  equivalent)  in  one  gallon.  "  Five  degrees  of  hardness"  means 
five  grains  in  the  gallon,  and  so  on.  It  is  preferable  to  express  the 
quantity  by  parts  in  100,000. 

The  method  by  soap  solution  can  be  more  exactly  used,  than  above 
indicated,  if  with  a  carefully  adjusted  soap  solution  we  employ  a  gradu- 
ated and  exactly  controllable  dropping-tube  (burette).  This  (Clark's) 
method  is  not  sufficiently  exact  for  complete  accuracy  and  demands  the 
resources  of  a  laboratory  as  well  as  skill.  "Where  the  rough  test  or  that 
indicated  in  the  third  and  fourth  paragraphs  before  this  does  not  suffice, 
and  extreme  accuracy  is  required,  it  is  best  that  an  expert  analyst  be 
intrusted  with  the  work,  which  involves  time,  skill  and  careful  weighing 
and  measuring. 

The  **  total  solids  "  in  a  water  are  found  by  evaporating  a  carefully 
measured  quantity  of  water  (one  pint  or  less)  in  a  platinum  evaporating- 
dish  that  is  perfectly  clean  and  dry  and  has  been  carefully  weighed  by 
accurate,  chemist's  balance  scales.  The  water  is  evaporated  over  a 
water-bath,  then  the  residue  is  dried  by  a  heat  not  to  exceed  212°  F. 
This  drying  should  occupy  a  number  of  hours.  After  this,  the  dish  and 
the  residue  from  the  evaporated  water  are  weighed  together.  The 
increase  over  the  weight  of  the  empty  platinum  dish  gives  the  result 
for  the  amount  of  water  used. 

For  detecting  ammonia,  a  colorless  (large)  test-tube  is  filled  three- 
fourths  full  of  the  water.  Then  a  fortieth  or  fiftieth  as  much  of 
Nessler's  reagent  (mercurio-potassium-iodide  solution)  is  added  and 
shaken  up  with  the  water.  A  yellow  or  orange  color  (coming  in  a 
quarter  of  an  hour)  shows  the  presence  of  ammonia.  Comparing  the 
color  with  that  of  ammonia  solutions  of  known  strength,  we  can  reach 
an  approximate  idea  of  the  amount  present.  The  potash  hydrate  of  the 
reagent,  when  in  excess,  causes  the  lime  and  magnesia  of  the  water 
to  give  a  whitish  (or  grayish-yellow)  precipitate.  Free  carbonic  acid 
obstructs  the  test.  Hence  it  is  recommended  that  3  parts  of  a  sodium 
hydrate  solution  and  2  parts  of  a  sodium  carbonate  solution  be  added  to 
200  parts  of  water  ;  the  whole  is  stirred  and  allowed  to  settle.  Ofie- 
fourth  of  this  when  clear  is  taken  for  the  above-indicated  test  for 
ammonia. 


OBTAINING    SAMPLES    FOR    TESTS  293 

For  a  chemical  test,  at  least  a  gallon  of  the  water  is 
desirable.  The  demijohn  or  bottle  used  (preferably  a  new- 
one)  must  be  very  clean.  In  any  case  it  ought  to  be  rinsed 
several  times  with  the  water  from  which  a  sample  is  to  be 
taken.  Then,  this  bottle  or  other  receptacle  is  filled  very 
carefully,  and  a  little  of  the  water  is  poured  off  so  as  to 
allow  a  slight  air-space.  A  new  cork  that  has  been  rinsed, 
steamed,  and  kept  clean,  is  then  put  in  above  all.  This 
may  be  tied  in  and  covered  with  clean,  boiled  muslin  or 
pure  tin-foil.  A  seal  is  put  on  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  if 
desired. 

It  is  wrong  to  decide  upon  the  absolute  hygienic  merits  of 
a  water  from  single  specimens  sent  very  far  before  examina- 
tion. The  water  needs  to  be  tested  at  different  times  of  the 
year.  In  certain  cases,  it  is  important  that  not  all  the  sam- 
ples be  obtained  when  the  wind  is  blowing  from  the  same 
direction.  Various  local  conditions  need  especial  consider- 
ation at  times. 

For  a  bacteriological  test,  it  is  best  that  the  bottle, 
previously  sterilized  by  heat,  be  managed  with  especial  care 
to  prevent  contamination.  In  getting  samples. for  any  pur- 
pose it  is  always  important  to  use  great  care  and  have  the 
specimen  an  average  one.  Hence  we  ought  to  get  water 
from  a  place  some  distance  away  from  the  shore,  in  a  stream 
or  lake.  Surface  water  is  not  fit  for  an  average  test ;  neither 
is  the  first  flow  from  a  faucet  or  pump.  We  should  have 
nothing  (as  a  boat  or  clothing,  for  instance)  between  a  cur- 
rent of  water  (or  air)  and  the  water-bottle  when  the  sample 
is  being  taken.  It  is  best  to  take  the  sample  from  water 
well  below  the  surface. 

The  contrivance  which  is  used  for  effecting  this  must  be 
strictly  clean  in  every  respect.  After  being  obtained,  a  sam- 
ple of  water  ought  to  be  tested  as  soon  as  possible.  The 
bacteriological  examination,  to  be  reliable,  must  be  begun 
on  the  spot,  in  most  cases.     A  little  ingenuity  allows  the 


294 


WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 


plating  to  be  done  immediately.  The  plates,  kept  cool  by 
suitable  devices,  can  be  transported  and  examined  in  a  place 
hundreds  of  miles  away  if  necessary,  even  in  summer. 

To  interpret  the  results  of  quantitative  analyses  of 
waters,  it  is  well  to  have  some  standard.  The  following  table 
is  based  upon  the  results  of  the  monumental  work  of  Kubel- 
Tiemann- Gartner,  the  late  Professor  Nichols,  and  other  emi- 
nent authorities.  The  qualification  is  made — as  already 
said — that  no  absolute  and  final  hygienic  importance  must 
be  attached  to  isolated  chemical  determinations,  for  they 
are  only  a  partial  guide  except  as  regards  ''  hardness  "  and 
the  presence  or  absence  of  metals.  The  two  standards  are 
not  given  as  being  exactly  convertible  or  identical.  Either 
suffices  for  practical  purposes. 

A  good  water  can  have  not  to  exceed  : 


OF 

IN    lOOjCXX)   PARTS. 

IN   U.   S.    GALLON. 

Solids  on  evaporation     .... 
Lime  and  Magnesia  salts    .     .     . 
Chlorine  (in  chlorides)    .... 

Sulphuric  acid  • 

Nitric  acid 

Nitrous  acid 

Ammonia 

.    50     parts. 
20      parts. 
2     parts. 
10     parts. 
1.2  parts. 
0      parts. 
0     parts. 

30  grains, 
iig  grains. 

\\  grains. 

6  grains. 
§  grain. 

"trace." 

"  trace." 

Ammonia  may,  however,  be  present  in  some  natural 
waters  without  permitting  the  inference  that  the  water  is 
unwholesome.  The  ammonia  is  not  of  itself  harmful.  Most 
distilled  water  has  much  of  this.  Yet  such  distilled  water  is 
excellent  and  equal  to  the  best  as  a  pure  drinking-water. 
It  is  not  so  much  the  quantity  as  the  quality  (and  especially 
the  source)  of  the  organic  matter  that  most  needs  to  be  con- 
sidered. When  a  water  from  a  public  supply  under  ordi- 
nary chances  of  contamination  has  .015  parts  of  alduminoid 
ammonia  in  100,000,  and  there  is  considerable /r^*?  ammonia 


IMPORTANCE    OF    CERTAIN    ELEMENTS  295 

present  also,  it  Is  at  least  suspicious  from  a  chemical  point 
of  view.  Further  investigation  then  needs  to  be  made.  Yet 
harmless  vegetable  matter  may  be  the  cause  of  all  this. 

Chlorine  may  be  present,  in  an  amount  that  greatly  exceeds 
that  of  the  standard  given  above,  in  case  that  the  water  be 
from  a  salt  district.  Yet  the  amount  given  is  set  quite  high. 
An  increase  over  this  maximum  allows,  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, the  suspicion  of  sewer  ox  privy  contamination.  If  a 
shallow  well  have,  in  its  water,  magnesia  or  potash-phosphate 
present  to  any  extent,  some  contamination  with  manure  or 
privy  leakage  may  usually  be  suspected.  Manufactory  waste 
causes  the  presence  of  very  varying  products  in  the  water, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  industry. 

When  the  water  from  a  given  region  is  tested,  it  is  quite 
necessary  to  have  examinations  made  of  other  (and  standard) 
water  from  the  same  region,  in  order  that  fair  comparisons 
may  be  made.  Such  comparisons,  however,  require  one  to 
examine  and  know  all  the  features  of  the  place.  Not  only 
must  the  situation  of  the  lake,  well  or  other  source  be  stud- 
ied with  reference  to  its  nearness  to  contaminations,  but  the 
geology  of  the  region  needs  to  be  considered  as  well. 

The  judgment  of  the  skilled  hydrologist  enables  him  to 
appreciate  the  factors  that  vitiate  or  count  in  favor  of  a 
given  water.  Not  only  are  dangerous  contaminations  recog- 
nizable at  one  place  and  not  present  elsewhere,  but  also  the 
rock  formation  may  change  along  the  course  of  a  stream  so 
as  to  make  the  water  below  a  certain  point  much  harder 
than  is  the  water  up-stream  from  that  point.  The  "  hard- 
ness "  of  water  from  limestone  is  liable  to  be  from  ten  to 
sixty  times  as  great  as  water  from  granite  hills  would  give  ; 
and  red  sandstone  or  lias  rocks  might  cause  water  derived 
from  them  to  be  nine  times  as  hard  as  if  coming  from 
granite. 

More  difficult  and  more  important,  from  a  hygienic  stand- 
point, is  the  judicial  estimate  of  varying  special  factors  that 


296  WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 

under  unfavoring  conditions  are  capable  of  furnishing  a 
more  or  less  serious  source  of  infection,  yet  under  the  best 
conditions  will  probably  be  harmless.  This  brings  up  the 
question  of  whether  water  "  purifies  itself  "  of  disease  in- 
fection or  chemical  poisons  after  these  have  entered.  Does 
a  flowing  stream,  for  instance,  become  a  fit  source  for  the 
supply  of  drinking-water,  at  a  lower  point  in  its  course,  if 
at  a  point  higher  up  in  its  flow  either  the  germs  of  disease 
or  acids,  lead,  etc.,  have  contaminated  it  so  as  to  render  the 
water,  at  that  place,  unsuited  for  drinking  ? 

This  important  question  was  discussed  at  length  in  a  mon- 
ograph embodying  original  researches  and  published  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers, 
for  February,  1891  (also  in  the  American  Journal  of  the 
Medical  Sciences  for  December,  1890).  The  results  of  that 
and  subsequent  work  go  to  show  that  all  water  tends  to  be- 
come pure  after  being  contaminated.  Daylight  and  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  especially  contribute  to  the  destruction 
of  disease  germs.  Dilution  and  sedimentation  also  lessen 
these.  The  chemicals  and  metals  such  as  lead,  etc.,  are 
usually  rendered  harmless  chiefly  by  extensive  dilution  of  the 
original  contaminated  water  into  which  they  have  entered. 

These  healthful  improvements  in  the  quality  of  polluted 
waters  are,  however,  so  slow  and  insignificant  in  many  cases, 
that  they  in  general  deserve  to  be  considered  an  uncertain 
reliance.  The  only  wholly  safe  way  is  to  keep  all  filth  and 
waste  out  of  the  water  which  is  to  be  used  later  by  human 
beings  or  animals.  Where  lead,  copper,  arsenic  or  any  other 
dangerous  metal  is  regularly  present  in  the  water,  this  water 
should  be  distilled  before  being  drunk.  A  very  simple  still 
suffices. 

Disease  germs,  that  enter  the  water  used  for  a  supply, 
remain  alive  there  a  varying  number  of  days.  Thus  they 
may  be  the  means  of  infecting  many  people  with  disease. 
Carelessness  in  allowing  any  portion  of  the  bowel  discharges 


CONTAMINATION    OF    WATER  297 

from  a  single  case  of  cholera  or  typhoid  fever  to  get  into  a 
water  supply  may  cause  numerous  deaths.  It  would  require 
many  books  of  the  size  of  this  to  give  a  list  of  all  the  indi- 
viduals, families  and  communities  that  have  received  the  in- 
fection of  typhoid  fever,  during  the  last  thirty  years,  owing 
to  such  impurities  having  entered  their  drinking-water. 
Cholera  comes  nearly  always  from  similar  disregard  of 
hygienic  cleanliness. 

Wells  may  be  contaminated  by  substances  flowing  in 
over  the  surface  of  the  ground.  In  such  cases,  walling  the 
upper  part  in  with  water-tight  cement  down  to  the  inflow 
level  of  the  ground-water  is  a  safeguard  which  is  better 
when  this  wall  is  carried  up  above  the  ground  and  when  pro- 
vision is  further  made  for  the  conducting  off  of  all  the  water 
that  reaches  the  surface  by  pumping.  Water  from  a  privy 
or  barnyard  can  always  pass  down  through  the  ground  and 
so  enter  an  adjoining  well. 

Ordinary  soil  usually  prevents  the  passage  of  disease  bac- 
teria in  this  way.  (See  page  3.)  When,  however,  a  fissure  or 
flaw  exists  in  the  ground,  the  passage  of  bacteria  (with  fluid 
filth)  into  a  well  is  thereby  facilitated.  If  a  well  has  flawless, 
firm,  natural  soil  between  it  and  all  barnyards  or  privies,  and 
if  it  is  tightly  walled  in  as  above  indicated  (so  that  no  surface 
filth  can  enter  its  water),  it  may  be  considered  comparatively 
safe.  When  thus  protected  by  natural  and  artificial  means, 
its  water  is  not  nearly  so  liable  to  be  dangerous  as  it  is  under 
ordinary  conditions.  This  is  true  even  though  the  water 
contain  much  albuminoid  ammonia  and  much  oxidizable 
matter  (as  seen  by  the  unusually  great  amount  of  perman- 
ganate of  potash  that  it  will  decompose)t  When  a  well- 
water  has  many  bacteria,  in  addition  to  ammonia,  nitrous  acid 
and  chlorides,  we  must  regard  it  as  seriously  contaminated. 

Coloring  matters  are  occasionally  employed  to  color  water  in  a  given 
place  and  thus  enable  us  to  find  out  whether  this  water  flows  in  a  cer- 
tain direction.     Their  value  is  not  so  great  as  that  of  the  most  delicate 


298  WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 

chemical  means.  The  best  way  to  determine  absolutely  whether  a  well 
receives  any  contamination  from  a  suspected  (neighboring  or  remote) 
privy  or  other  deposit  of  filth  (carried  perhaps  through  a  flaw  in  the  ground 
or  otherwise),  is  to  add  certain  chemicals  to  the  suspected  privy  or 
manure-heap,  etc.  If  there  be  several  possible  sources  of  contamination, 
the  chemical  is  added  first  to  one  of  these.  Then  the  water  of  the  well 
is  sampled  before  another  possible  source  of  contamination  is  tried  in 
the  same  way.  After  the  test-chemical  has  disappeared  from  the  well- 
water,  if  any  happened  to  enter  the  well  from  the  first  test,  another 
privy  or  filth-pile  receives  the  test-chemical,  and  the  well-water  is  again 
sampled  in  the  same  way. 

Lithium,  in  the  form  of  a  solution  of  lithium  chloride  (or  carbonate), 
is  the  best  chemical  to  use  for  this  purpose.  Even  in  very  minute 
amounts,  it  is  easily  recognized  by  the  spectroscope.  It  is  not  a  common 
ingredient  of  well-waters.  The  solution  of  this  trial  chemical  can  be 
put  upon  the  edge  of  the  suspected  source  of  infection,  or  may  be  poured 
upon  it  as  in  a  privy  vault.  It  can  also  be  sunk  into  the  ground  through 
a  clean  iron  tube  driven  in  for  the  purpose. 

After  the  well-water  has  probably  received  the  lithium  through  the 
ground  if  there  actually  be  any  leak,  a  quart  or  more  of  the  water  is 
taken.  To  prepare  it  for  the  test,  enough  pure  carbonate  of  sodium  is 
added  to  precipitate  any  lime  and  magnesia.  Then  the  water  is  evap- 
orated to  less  than  a  tenth  of  its  bulk.  It  is  then  filtered  through 
thick  paper  and  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  added  to  the  clear  filtrate  until 
it  gives  a  slight  acid  reaction.  Then  it  is  evaporated  to  dryness.  Hot 
alcohol  will  dissolve  out  the  lithium  chloride  present,  and — on  this  being 
evaporated — the  lithium  salt  is  ready  for  the  simple  spectroscopic  test. 

Selecting  a  Water  Supply 
Ground-water,  when  of  the  best  quality,  is  the  most 
desirable  of  natural  waters.  (See  also  pages  301  and  304.) 
Most  artesian  wells,  therefore,  yield  excellent  water.  The 
supply  source  (however  distant)  must,  in  such  wells,  be  pure 
and  not  contaminated  from  above.  It  should  be  deep  down 
under  imperfneable  layers.  Iro?i  may  be  present  in  these 
deep  waters.     This  detracts  from  the  value  of  the  water. 

The  iron  in  such  water,  when  exposed  to  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  (by  the  water  rising  to  the  surface),  becomes  an  insol- 
uble oxide  of  iron  which  settles  as  a  slime  and  may  require 


COMPARATIVE    DESIRABILITY    OF    SUPPLIES  299 

special  treatment  (as  by  means  of  careful  filtration  after  aeri- 
fying it).  Deep-well  waters  that  contain  iron  usually  show 
a  marked  tendency  to  develop  algce  j  and  in  such  waters  we 
expect  to  find  the  objectionable  crenothrix,  a  sort  of  bac- 
terial growth  in  minute  threads  which  may  form  large  masses 
that  can  obstruct  pipes. 

Wells  should  be  zealously  p7'otected  froin  the  eiitrance  of 
filth  from  above  ground,  and  the  surface  contamination  that 
may  come  in  with  rain-water  (if  the  well  be  not  tightly 
walled  in)  is  always  to  be  guarded  against.  When  well- 
water  warrants  suspicion,  because  of  the  nearness  of  privies 
or  other  possible  source  of  defilement,  boiling  renders  the 
water  perfectly  wholesome. 

Nearly  as  good  as  the  best  ground-waters,  or  (under  the 
best  conditions)  of  about  the  same  quality,  is  water  from 
upland  lakes  with  little  or  no  population  on  the  barren  water- 
shed, and  where  no  filth  whatsoever  is  allowed  to  drain  into 
the  water. 

In  the  third  rank  may  be  classed  good  average  lakes  and 
streams  that  are  neither  navigated  nor  contaminated. 
Streams  generally  prove  hygienically  inferior  to  lakes  that 
are  fairly  deep. 

Rain-water,  gathered  from  roofs  and  stored  in  cisterns, 
is  often  very  unwholesome  and  at  least  should  be  boiled. 
It  is  very  soft  and  desirable  for  washing,  tea-making,  cook- 
ing peas  or  beans,  etc.,  and  for  manufacturing  purposes 
where  hard  or  "  brackish  "  water  is  the  only  other  kind  to 
be  had.  Such  water  is,  however,  very  far  from  being 
organically  pure.  Water  from  a  good  spring  or  well  is  much 
to  be  preferred. 

After  the  first  portion  of  a  rain-storm  has  cleared  away, 
from  the  atmosphere,  some  of  the  dust,  ammonia,  acids  and 
other  undesirable  elements,  present  especially  in  city  air,  the 
water  is  purer  than  at  the  beginning  of  a  rainfall.  The  roof 
surface  accumulates  dust  and  dirt  of  various  sorts  from 


300  WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 

birds,  leaves,  etc.  Hence  it  is  very  well  to  manage  that  the 
first  part  of  every  rainfall  shall  have  washed  the  air,  the  roof 
and  the  gutters  before  anything  is  allowed  to  enter  the 
cisterns.  This  is  not  always  done  where  such  cleanly  pre- 
cautions are  most  needed.  The  automatic  devices  arranged 
to  effect  this  often  fail  to  do  their  work. 

Cisterns,  or  other  containers  or  pipes  used  for  rain-water, 
must  be  wholly  free  from  lead.  This  poisonous  metal  is 
more  apt  to  be  taken  up  by  soft  water  than  by  that  which  is 
hard.  Cisterns  are  very  liable  to  become  filthy  and  danger- 
ously contaminated.  Hence  it  is  important  to  use  extreme 
care  not  only  in  locating  a  cistern,  but  also  in  arranging  the 
construction  and  in  placing  safeguards  about  it.  In  time  of 
drought,  the  supply  sinks  very  low.  Then,  too,  the  small 
amount  of  rain-water  that  falls  is  apt  to  be  less  cleanly. 
So,  boiling  is  desirable  before  the  water  is  drunk. 

It  may  be  estimated  that  on  every  loo  square  feet  of 
ground  area  occupied  by  the  building  properly  roofed  over 
in  the  usual  manner,  there  can  be  collected  a  little  more  than 
60  gallons  of  water  for  every  inch  of  rainfall.  This  is  for 
the  regions  where  from  30  to  50  or  more  inches  of  rain  (or 
its  equivalent  in  snow)  fall  every  year.  Where  the  air  is 
very  dry,  much  moisture  is  lost  through  evaporation  from 
the  surface  on  which  the  rain  falls. 

In  deciding  whether  a  'water  is  good  or  not,  we  rely 
somewhat  upon  the  chemical  examination  as  already  ex- 
plained. For  determining  "  hardness  "  or  metallic  contami- 
nation, the  chemical  examination  is  of  absolute  value.  The 
biological  examination,  including  microscopical  and  culture 
tests,  should  also  never  be  omitted  ;  but  only  experts  can  be 
relied  upon.  Yet  the  main  reliance  in  almost  all  cases  is 
inspection  of  the  source.  We  may  further  say  that,  in  order 
to  be  called  good  : 

(i)  A   water   ought  to  have  little   or  no    color  and    no 
visible  sediment  or  suspended  matters.     Yet  tur- 


ESSENTIALS    OF    GOOD    WATER  30I 

bidlty  does  not  necessarily  mean  harmful  contami- 
nation. Peaty  waters  may  be  quite  fit  for  a  supply 
and  yet  be  as  dark  as  beer.  An  illustration  of  this 
is  afforded  by  the  water  coming  from  the  "  Dismal 
Swamp  "  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina.  The 
above  rule  is  a  good  one,  however. 

(2)  Warmed  or  not  warmed  it  should  be  free  from  odor. 

(3)  It  should  be  agreeable  to  the  sense  of  taste.     Yet  an 

unpleasant  taste  or  odor  need  not  of  itself  mean 
dangerous  contamination.  Conversely,  it  may  be 
said  that  some  of  the  most  limpid  and  delicious 
water  may  at  times  contain  harmful  germs  which 
can  cause  disease  and  death  among  those  using  the 
water.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  wells  in 
crowded  towns  and  villages,  and  where  suitable 
provision  against  surface  washings  and  other  con- 
taminations is  not  made. 

(4)  The  water  should  have    a   rather  evenly  cool    and 

agreeable  temperature  throughout  the  year.  Water 
that  is  warm  in  summer  and  cold  in  winter  is  apt 
to  be  of  superficial  origin  or  to  have  been  through 
superficial  conduits  or  shallow  reservoirs  on  its  way 
to  the  consumer. 

It  is  recognized  as  a  practical  fact  that  the  rainfall  on  a  square  mile 
of  ground  area  is  great  in  proportion  as  that  is  near  the  mouth  of  a 
river.  It  decreases  as  we  go  inland.  Of  the  water  falling,  a  consider- 
able proportion  is  vaporized  off.  This  loss  may  be  one-third,  more  or 
less,  of  the  total  rainfall  ;  yet  evaporation  necessarily  varies  greatly  with 
the  dryness  of  the  air.  The  remainder  either  flows  over  the  ground  di- 
rectly into  the  stream  or  sinks  into  the  earth  to  flow  through  the  ground 
gradually  onward  and  downward  as  ground-water  or  "  subsoil- water." 

Ground-water  makes  thus  an  underground  stream  going  toward 
some  lake  or  river  to  which  it  is  tributary,  but  flowing  very  slowly 
(usually  at  the  rate  of  only  a  portion  of  a  hundred  feet  per  day)  and 
showing  slight  oscillations  of  level.  The  condition  and  character  of 
the  soil  as  well  as  the  local  and  other  factors  affect  the  ground-water, 


302  WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 

its  flow,  amount  and  level.  From  a  valuable  study  of  this  subject  em- 
bodied in  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  Bulletin  No.  5,  of  1892,  it  appears 
that,  at  the  Wisconsin  agricultural  experiment  farm,  the  ground-water 
rises  nearly  five  inches  for  every  inch  of  rain  falling  on  the  surface.  In 
general  the  ground- water  level  falls  more  rapidly  during  the  daytime 
than  at  night. 

Where  this  ground-water  in  any  place  does  not  flow  on,  but  becomes 
stagnant,  from  being  dammed  up,  by  a  rocky  (or  other  impermeable) 
barrier,  the  water  is  undesirable  and  the  site  becomes  unhealthful. 
Artificial  drainage  is  then  necessary. 

If  in  twenty-four  hours  one  inch  of  rain  falls  evenly  over  a  given 
area,  then  every  square  mile  will  have  received  about  3,323,200  cubic 
feet.  Taking  the  area  of  the  entire  water-shed  and  the  average  number 
of  inches  of  rain  (and  its  equivalent  of  snow)  observed  to  fall  in  a  year, 
it  is  easy  to  estimate  how  much  water  will  probably  be  received  upon 
the  entire  water-shed  during  one  year. 

Apart  from  the  considerable  percentage  lost  by  evaporation  from  its 
large  surface,  a  storage  reservoir  loses  much  water  by  leakage  and  by 
percolation  through  the  soil.  Allowance  must  also  be  made  for  waste 
by  floods.  The  flood  volume  of  a  stream  is  inversely  as  the  area  of  the 
basin.  Allowing  for  evaporation  at  all  times  and  also  for  the  waste 
above  indicated,  as  well  as  for  occasional  drought,  one  is  enabled  to 
avoid  the  usual  error  of  providing  too  small  a  supply. 

A  city  or  a  dwelling  having  a  sewage  system  must  receive 
daily  at  least  enough  water  to  allow  25  gallons  or  more  for 
every  individual  of  the  population.  Some  cities  wisely  allow 
more  than  100  gallons  daily.  Among  those  in  this  country 
that  are  thus  liberal  may  be  mentioned  Memphis,  Cincinnati, 
and  Pittsburg.  In  the  city  of  New  York,  between  90  and 
100  gallons  is  the  average  amount  used  daily  by  each  indi- 
vidual, 165,000,000  gallons  per  day  being  the  estimated 
average  amount  supplied  to  that  city  during  the  year  1893. 
In  summer  and  winter  this  average  is  exceeded.  Experi- 
ments of  attaching  meters  to  the  water-pipes  supplying  cer- 
tain dwelling-house  blocks  there  showed  a  consumption  of 
200  gallons  per  day  for  each  resident.  This  means  that 
some  people  use  much  more  water  than  othel-s.  Other 
cities  have  a  similar  experience. 


WATER    SUPPLIES  303 

This  large  consumption  is  condemned  by  some  as  being 
wasteful.  Yet  that  view  is  not  a  very  wise  one  ;  for  the 
more  water  the  people  use,  the  cleaner  is  the  city  and  the 
better  is  the  sewage  washed  away.  It  would  be  better  if 
water  were  so  abundantly  supplied  that  all  people  could  use 
it  freely  and  were  encouraged  to  do  so.  Hydraulic  motors, 
however,  are  not  to  be  encouraged.  In  time  of  drought, 
special  requests,  if  persistently  repeated,  cause  some  lessen- 
ing in  water  waste. 

Water  -  works  ought  to  be  under  municipal  control. 
Thereby  both  the  supply  and  the  maintenance  of  the  entire 
water  system  are  more  satisfactory  as  well  as  cheaper,  all 
things  being  considered,  than  when  managed  by  private  cor- 
porations. In  New  York  City,  the  cost  of  water  to  those 
who  pay  for  it  by  the  quantity  is  only  one  dollar  for  i,ooo 
cubic  feet  (that  being  about  7,500  gallons).  Some  cities 
supply  water  at  a  price  even  lower  than  that. 

For  our  country,  it  is  not  necessary  to  consider  the  use  of 
rain-water  stored  in  cisterns  for  general  public  use.  Such 
water  is  undesirable,  as  already  said.  If  cisterns  be  em- 
ployed, they  'must  at  any  rate  be  carefully  guarded  from 
contamination.  In  Constantinople,  Aden  and  other  ori- 
ental places,  large  communities  are  supplied  from  cisterns. 

Those  localities  are  in  general  to  be  regarded  as  illustra- 
tions of  what  not  to  do  rather  than  as  examples  that  we  may 
with  safety  follow.  Frankland  tells  us  that  the  water  in  the 
"  holy  well "  at  Mecca  reveals,  on  analysis,  several  times  as 
much  animal  matter  as  is  found  in  the  same  volume  of  Lon- 
don sewage  I  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  that  cholera  and 
other  filth-diseases  perennially  make  fearful  ravages  among 
those  who  flock  to  such  shrines. 

Springs  coming  from  uncultivated,  unmanured  ground, 
not  liable  to  contamination,  furnish  excellent  water,  as  has 
already  been  indicated.  If  carefully  taken,  such  water  can 
be  utilized  very  satisfactorily  for  a  considerable  population. 


304  WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 

Not  all  deep  artesian  wells  are  necessarily  pure.  Thus, 
underneath  certain  cities  the  various  geological  strata  pitch 
almost  directly  downward.  Accordingly,  most  of  the  arte- 
sian-well water  there,  even  if  from  very  deep  layers,  is  open 
to  suspicion.  Very  deep  springs  can  occasionally  carry  im- 
purities for  miles. 

On  the  other  hand,  water-bearing  layers  may  dip  under 
great  bodies  of  ocean  water,  and  yet  when  tapped  many 
miles  away  may  furnish  very  satisfactory  water  which,  to 
both  chemical  and  bacteriological  analysis,  is  very  pure. 
Such  pure  water  from  a  distant  source  is  got  by  boring  deep 
on  Long  Island  or  on  the  tongue  of  sandy  land  in  New  Jer- 
sey outside  of  Barnegat  Inlet.  The  same  conditions  exist  in 
other  places. 

A  supply  of  pure  v/ater,  at  a  low  cost  for  the  plant,  can  be 
obtained  by  the  tube  gang-well  system,  which  offers,  for  cer- 
tain cities,  more  healthful  water  than  any  other  available 
source  of  supply.  Lowell,  Mass.,  is  one  of  the  cities  that 
have  recently  appropriated  money  for  putting  in  a  plant 
of  this  sort. 

The  application  of  the  principle  calls  for  the  selection  of 
a  suitable  surface  of  ground  away  from  any  chance  of  con- 
tamination and  owned  or  wholly  controlled  by  the  town  or 
city  that  is  to  use  the  water.  Then  tubes  about  two  inches 
in  diameter,  and  which  are  sharp  at  the  ends  and  perforated 
above  that,  are  driven  suitably  deep  into  the  ground.  In 
the  Brooklyn  gang-wells,  some  of  the  tubes  are  90  feet  deep  ; 
others  are  only  half  as  far  down  in  the  ground.  In  one  of 
the  Lowell  tests,  water  was  obtainable  at  depths  of  from  15  to 
55  feet.  Going  down  to  28  feet,  the  yield  of  water  grad- 
ually increased,  being  25  gallons  per  minute  at  this  depth. 
As  the  tube  was  driven  in  further,  less  water  was  got.  At  ;^S 
feet,  only  7  gallons  a  minute  were  obtained. 

From  that  point,  the  water  obtainable  increased  as  the  tube 
was  sunk.     At  45  feet,  the  yield  per  minute  was  ^6  gallons. 


GROUND-WATER    AND    GANG-WELLS  305 

Then,  as  the  tube  was  driven  farther  on,  the  amount  obtain- 
able grew  less  and  less.  At  55  feet,  no  water  could  be  got. 
Hence  the  tube  was  drawn  up  to  a  depth  of  45  feet,  and, 
after  a  day's  test  pumping,  yielded  more  than  in  the  begin- 
ning. These  figures  are  given  simply  to  show  that  each  case 
must  be  judged  by  itself,  the  water-bearing  ground  layers  of 
one  locality  being  of  course  quite  unlike  those  in  another. 
It  is  furthermore  not  possible  to  determine  the  presence  or 
amount  of  underground  water  by  surface  indications. 

These  tubes,  sunk  in  two  parallel  rows,  ten  feet  or  more 
apart,  are  connected  by  cross  pipes  to  a  horizontal  pipe  run- 
ning half-way  between  the  parallel  rows.  All  the  joints 
must  be  air-tight,  since  the  water  is  drawn  out  by  pumps. 
At  Frankfort  as  well  as  at  Leipzig  (in  Germany)  nearly  the 
same  amount  of  water  is  obtained  by  this  method  as  is 
received  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  where  over  nine  million  gallons 
of  water  are  delivered  daily  from  such  "  driven  wells." 

Gang- well  water  has  the  merit  of  having  been  very  well 
filtered  by  a  very  perfect  filter — namely,  the  deep  soil  of 
porous  ground.  So,  unless  there  be  a  flaw,  such  water  will 
be  found  very  pure  as  regards  bacteria.  It  may,  however, 
be  quite  ''hard"  in  some  soils.  As  already  indicated,  the 
ground  selected  for  the  purpose  must  be  free  from  sources 
of  contamination. 

Whatever  sort  of  pumps  be  used  to  raise  such  driven-well 
water  (or  any  other),  care  must  be  taken  that  storage  tanks 
or  reservoirs  are  large  enough  to  hold  a  supply  for  several 
days  ;  since  all  machinery  is  liable  to  get  out  of  order  and 
considerable  time  is  often  needed  for  repairs. 

Means    for    Improving  Inferior  Waters 

A  given  locality  cannot  always  command  a  wholly  satis- 
factory water  supply.    The  problem  therefore  arises,  in  such 
cases,  of  how  a  bad  or  badly  appearing  water  can  best  be 
improved.     Only  a  limited  portion  of  the  community  can 
20 


3o6  WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 

afford  to  buy  bottled  waters,  even  if  the  harmf ulness  of  con- 
taminated water  be  realized  by  the  masses.  Furthermore, 
it  may  here  be  asserted,  as  a  result  of  many  examinations, 
that  bottled  waters  and  various  others  which  are  freely  ad- 
vertised and  widely  sold  are  not  always  as  good  or  genuine 
as  persons  who  extol  these  claim  them  to  be. 

Distilled  water,  even  if  not  aerified  with  air  that  has 
been  filtered  through  cotton  or  other  suitable  substance, 
offers  the  best  beverage  where  the  ordinary  supply  is  bad. 
Distilled  water  ought  to  be  produced  more  extensively  than 
it  is.  By  means  of  large  improved  stills,  it  can  be  delivered 
to  retail  purchasers  for  less  than  five  cents  a  gallon  and  yet 
return  a  very  handsome  profit  to  the  producer. 

Small  stills  are  already  in  existence  and  others  are  being 
perfected  which  are  adapted  to  producing  pure  water  for 
domestic  use.  Some  of  these  do  not  require  the  use  of 
much  (if  any)  water  for  condensing  the  steam.  If  they 
employ  metallic  surfaces  for  cooling  (and  thus  condensing) 
the  steam,  care  must  be  had  to  see  that  no  lead  (from  the 
solder)  gets  into  the  water.  Such  devices  are  especially 
recommendable  for  rendering  the  ''  alkali  water "  of  our 
great  plains  fit  to  drink.  They  are  of  course  good  for  purify- 
ing any  bad  water.  A  simple  still  can  produce  good  water. 
Aerifying  makes  the  water  more  palatable.  No  matter  how 
bad  a  water — even  if  it  contain  sewage  and  disease  germs, 
salts  or  lead,  acids  or  alkalies — the  process  of  distillation 
insures  that  the  water  thus  treated  is  perfectly  wholesome. 
Boiling  answers  the  same  purpose  as  distillation,  so  far  as 
removing  infection  is  concerned.  The  germs  of  disease 
cannot  survive  the  heat  of  either  process. 

Sterilization  of  water  on  a  large  scale  has  been 
projected  by  Yaryan,  of  Toledo.  American  cities  and 
institutions,  to  some  of  which  this  principle  seems  peculiarly 
adapted  (owing  to  local  conditions),  appear  averse  to  put- 
ting the   idea  into   practice.     In    France,   Messrs.  Rouart, 


STERILIZATION    OF    WATER 


307 


Geneste  and  Herscher  have  produced  a  practical  apparatus 
which  has  been  successfully  used  by  a  few  cities,  towns 
and  institutions.  It  can  be  employed  for  completely  steril- 
izing water  by  means  of  raising  its  temperature  seventy 
degrees  or  more  above  the  boiling  point  if  so  high  a  heat 
be  desired. 


This  heating  being  done  throughout  under  pressure,  there  is  no  dis- 
tillation. Yet  there  is  some  loss  of  free  oxygen,  due  to  the  fact  that, 
while  none  can 
escape  out  of 
the  heater, 
some  is  taken 
up  by  the  con- 
tained organic 
matter.  The 
amount  of  or- 
ganic matter 
and  gases  pres- 
ent is  consid- 
er a  b  1  y  r  e- 
duced  by  the 
process.  Some 
of  the  carbon- 
ates of  lime 
and  magnesia 
are  p  r  e  c  i  p  i- 
tated. 

Fig.  43  illus- 
trates the  mechanism  of  a  small  portable  apparatus  yielding  one  hun- 
dred gallons  per  hour.  The  water,  completely  sterilized  by  the  heat, 
flows  out  through  the  pipe  F,  on  the  right.  The  strainer  D  serves  to 
clear  the  water  which  has  passed  from  the  heater  through  the  coils  in  B 
and  C.  In  these,  it  is  surrounded  by  cold,  inflowing  water.  The  water 
is  represented  as  coming  in  at  E,  on  the  upper  part  of  the  figure  and  to 
the  right  of  the  smoke-flue.  The  fire-box  is  at  G.  Into  the  arrange- 
ment above  it,  the  water  to  be  heated  enters  after  having  passed  through 
the  large  coil.  This  very  hot  water  stands  at  a  level  a  little  below  the 
letter  F,  and  is  thence  (by  its  expansion-pressure)  driven  out  through 
the  small  coils  of  pipes  to  the  right. 


^t^'i'i^-^Wi'Q. 


Fig.  43- 


3o8  WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 

This  principle,  of  causing  the  inflowing  cold  water  to  reduce  the  tem- 
perature of  the  outflowing  hot  water  to  nearly  the  original  degree  of 
coolness  while  the  temperature  of  the  inflowing  water  is  thereby 
economically  raised,  makes  the  process  very  inexpensive  compared  with 
distillation.  Yet  it  does  not  remove  mineral  poisons  when  they  are 
present.  It  has  been  pronounced  satisfactory  by  impartial  critics. 
The  future  will  determine  the  extent  of  its  usefulness.  The  apparatus 
can  be  adapted  so  as  to  be  moved  about  on  wheels  and  serve  for  the 
use  of  several  establishments.  It  is  thus  also  valuable  for  an  encamp- 
ment where  the  water  is  very  impure. 

Turbid  water  is  not  necessarily  dangerous  ;  but  it  is  liable 
to  be  so.  People  do  not  in  any  case  like  to  drink  water  that 
is  not  clear  and  sweet.  So  attempts  are  often  made  to 
purify  such  waters.  The  various  means  used  are  alluded  to 
on  page  286.  Of  the  chemicals  there  mentioned,  alum  is 
most  commonly  used  in  this  country  to  cause  sedimentation 
when  added  to  water.  Not  more  than  one  part  should  be 
used  for  five  thousand  parts  of  water.  Often  there  is  needed 
less  than  one-twentieth  as  much  as  that.  Such  a  small 
amount  of  alum  can  fairly  be  regarded  as  harmless. 

Settling-basins,  used  independently  of  chemicals  or  fil- 
ters, may  cause  much  of  certain  sediments  to  subside ;  yet 
the  best  system  of  that  sort  is  at  times  very  imperfect. 

Filtration,  on  a  large  scale  and  well  managed,  is  very 
much  better.  The  ordinary  domestic  filters  are  of  value 
only  as  strainefs  that  remove  visible  dirt,  eggs  of  worms  and 
coarse  parasites.  Flannel  bags  that  are  kept  clean  are  about 
as  good  for  that  purpose.  To  destroy  all  parasites  and  pos- 
sible germs  of  disease,  infected  water  that  has  passed 
through  such  strainers  requires  to  be  boiled  afterward. 
Then  it  is  harmless. 

To  exclude  bacteria,  even  for  a  few  hours  or  days,  a 
filter  must  be  composed  of  very  close,  dense,  porous  sub- 
stance in  which  no  flaw  exists.  Porous  porcelain  is  proba- 
bly the  best  of  all  such  materials.  Yet  it  is  fragile,  slow  and, 
as  recently  shown,  changes  the  water  somewhat.     It  needs 


SMALL    AND    LARGE    FIT-TERS  309 

also  to  be  cleansed  every  few  days  and  at  the  same  time  to 
be  sterilized  by  hot  water  or  steam.  Hence  it  is  hardly  to 
be  universally  recommended,  even  if  flawless.  At  time  of 
epidemic,  such  things  are  to  be  absolutely  relied  upon  only 
in  laboratories  or  in  other  places  where  they  can  often  be 
tested. 

All  slow  filters,  attached  to  the  faucet  of  an  ordinary  lead 
pipe,  keep  the  drinking-water,  that  goes  through  them,  for  a 
long  time  in  contact  with  the  lead  pipes.  Thereby,  lead- 
poisonijig  is  rendered  more  possible  than  it  is  when  the  water 
is  drawn  rapidly  through  such  pipes. 

When  the  water  used  for  drinking  is  undoubtedly  infected, 
boiling  is  the  only  ordinary  means  that  housekeepers  should 
employ  for  rendering  bad  hydrant-  or  well-water  fit  to 
drink. 

Large  filters  are  a  valuable  means  of  rendering  impure 
water  purer  and  freer  from  bacteria.  Yet  disease  germs  pass 
through  these  at  times.  To  prevent  this  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, and  to  secure  the  best  results  in  general,  constant  and 
vigilant  effort  is  necessary.  The  rapid  sand  filters,  which 
various  makers  produce,  are  very  much  alike  in  quality. 
They  are  used  by  numbers  of  towns  and  small  cities,  and 
generally  cause  unsatisfactory  river  water  to  become  much 
better  than  it  is  when  unfiltered. 

On  a  very  large  scale,  filter  beds,  as  used  in  Berlin,  greatly 
improve  a  bad  water.  Those  of  that  city  are  mentioned 
because  of  their  excellent  construction  and  because  they 
have  been  very  thoroughly  tested  for  ten  years. 

In  such  very  large  filters,  rocks  and  stones  are  covered  by  gravel 
over  which  is  a  thick  layer  of  coarse  sand.  Above  this  is  very  fine  sand 
making  the  entire  filter  bed  a  little  more  than  six  feet  thick.  The  top 
is  scraped  off  slightly  in  the  weekly  cleaning.  This  sand  alone  would 
not  hold  back  any  considerable  number  of  bacteria.  To  form  a  more 
perfect  surface  for  the  top  of  the  filter  after  each  weekly  emptying  and 
cleaning,  water  is  allowed  to  flow  gently  into  the  large  filter  bed  till 


3IO  WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 

the  basin  is  filled  to  the  level  of  three   feet  above   the   sand.     Then  it 
stands  for  a  day  or  more. 

By  the  settling  of  the  minute  vegetable  growths  and  various  organic 
and  inorganic  particles  present  in  that  water,  a  very  close,  fine  film  is 
formed  which,  by  its  mechanical  action,  serves  to  hold  back  almost  all 
of  the  bacteria  in  the  impure  water  afterward  let  in  for  filtration.  This 
water  passes  through  under  a  pressure  of  only  six  feet  (of  overlying 
water)  and  preferably  at  the  rate  of  not  much  more  than  ten  feet  a  day. 
This  flow  through  the  filter  must  be  not  only  slow,  but  also  perfectly 
steady. 

The  cost  of  providing  such  filter  beds  as  are  used  for  purifying  water 
supplied  to  London,  Berlin,  Hamburg  (since  1892)  and  other  European 
cities,  averages  less  than  fifteen  dollars  per  square  yard  for  those  beds 
that  are  roofed  in.  The  open  beds  are  less  expensive.  The  only  usual 
advantage  of  covering  these  is  that  the  water  is  thereby  kept  cooler  and 
that  in  winter  they  are  more  easily  cleaned  and  thus  work  faster  in  cold 
weather.  When  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  much  below  the  freezing 
point,  open  filter  beds  are  very  difficult  to  clean.  The  healthful  action 
of  the  air  and  light  is  of  course  more  operative  when  the  roof  is  absent. 
Roofs  are  effective  in  restricting  the  growth  of  algce. 

From  every  acre  of  such  filter  beds,  under  skilful  management,  nearly 
two  million  gallons  of  purified  water  can  be  produced  in  a  day. 

While,  in  intermittent  filtration  of  sewage,  it  is  shown  by  repeated 
experiments  (including  the  latest  reported  results  from  Lawrence, 
Mass.)  that  it  is  better  to  break  up  the  scum  on  the  surface,  it  is  in  this 
continuous,  practically  economical  filtration  of  water  for  city  use  con- 
sidered better  to  utilize  the  sedimental  film.  By  its  presence,  the  unin- 
terruptedly continuous  film  holds  back  bacteria  and  suspended  particles 
which  otherwise  would  pass  through. 

The  practical  filtration  of  river  water  for  city  use  by  means  of  the 
mechanical  film  is  in  the  main  a  very  different  process  from  the  inter- 
mittent purification  of  sewage  which  is  passed  through  sand  beds.  In 
the  latter  instance,  the  process  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  chemical  one 
effected  by  the  active  vital  processes  of  bacteria  in  the  presence  of  oxy- 
gen and  requiring  time  for  the  chemical  action.  Moreover,  in  this 
latter  (sewage-purifying)  process  the  sand  should  not  be  very  fine. 
(See  following  chapter,  page  329.) 

To  illustrate  the  value  of  such  filtration  in  holding  back  the  germs  of 
disease  and  thus  rendering  bad  water  less  harmful,  the  comparative  ex- 
periences of  Altona  and  Hamburg  in  1892  may  be  cited.  These  two 
cities  are  on  the  same  northerly  side  of  the  river  Elbe.     The  former  is 


FILTERS.       WATER  3II 

practically  a  suburb  of  the  latter,  being  situated  immediately  adjoining 
it  down-stream. 

Altona  used  the  Elbe  water  only  after  it  had  been  passed  through  the 
efficient  public  filter.  Hamburg  took  its  supply  of  water  from  the  same 
river,  but  without  any  filtration.  In  that  city  thirteen  persons  out  of 
every  thousand  of  the  population  died  from  cholera  ;  while  its  neighbor 
had  less  than  one-sixth  of  that  proportion  of  deaths.  In  a  street  which 
crosses  from  one  of  these  two  cities  into  the  other,  numerous  cases  oc- 
curred on  the  Hamburg  side  of  the  boundary  ;  but  on  the  Altona  side, 
using  the  filtered  Elbe  water,  there  were  almost  no  cases. 

Cold  weather  does  not  prevent  the  Berlin  filter  beds  from 
working  well,  although  it  slows  them  somewhat.  A  weighty 
objection  to  implicit  reliance  upon  such  purifying  means  in 
the  presence  of  an  epidemic  comes  from  the  fact  that  some 
disease  germs  may  get  through  at  the  time  of  the  regular 
(necessary)  cleaning  of  the  surface  of  the  beds.  Yet  public 
warning  could  always  be  given  whenever  the  water  merited 
suspicion.  By  far  the  safest  means  of  averting  possible 
disease  at  such  times  lies  in  insisting  that  people  then  drink 
water  only  after  it  has  been  heated,  for  a  minute  at  least, 
to  the  boiling  point  or  nearly  that. 

With  regard  to  hydrant  pipes,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
most  careful  fitting  and  adjustment  is  required.  Otherwise, 
water  is  wasted  by  leakage  from  the  mains.  The  pressure 
of  the  water  within  makes  it  improbable  that  filth  enters  a 
perfect  water-main  through  which  water  is  going  in  a  stream 
that  fills  the  entire  bore  and  is  under  pressure  besides. 
When,  however,  aqueducts  or  imperfectly  jointed  pipes, 
that  are  only  partially  filled,  pass  through  ground  abounding 
in  organic  filth,  there  is  danger  that  some  of  this  filth  be 
drawn  into  the  water.  Such  possible  contaminations  ought 
to  be  guarded  against. 

Water-mains  should  be  laid  deep  enough  to  escape  the 
danger  of  freezing.  Corners  and  "  dead  ends  "  that  are  not 
constantly  in  contact  with  the  moving  current  of  the  water 
are  to  be  carefully  avoided  in  hydrants. 


312  WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 

Large  main  pipes,  with  frequent  outlets  to  which  several 
fire-engines  can  connect,  afford  better  provision  against  dan- 
ger from  conflagration  than  when  only  small  hydrants  exist. 
The  pipes  should  not  be  larger  than  sufficient  for  all  possi- 
ble needs.  They  must,  however,  not  be  insufficient  in  size. 
In  one  of  our  largest  cities,  where  this  is  the  case,  people 
have  had  to  resume  the  use  of  condemned  wells  for  supply- 
ing their  domestic  wants,  with  the  result  that  numerous  cases 
of  typhoid  fever  and  other  diseases  have  been  traced  to  that 
cause  in  the  last  few  years. 

All  reservoirs  should  be  open,  but  so  situated  that  they 
will  not  receive  any  surface  filth  or  other  contamination. 
The  less  city  dust  they  receive,  the  better.  They  need  to  be 
well  fenced  in  and  carefully  policed.  On  the  inside,  reser- 
voirs should  be  water-tight.  Their  construction  and  that  of 
stand-pipes  must  be  so  strong  as  to  prevent  the  possibility 
of  their  giving  way. 

For  piping  water,  from  a  supply,  into  and  through  a 
house,  lead  pipe  is  commonly  used.  Yet  it  often  causes 
lead-poisoni7ig  because  of  the  metal  being  acted  upon  by  well- 
oxygenized  water  and  by  that  which  has  free  carbonic  acid. 
New  pipes  are  especially  liable  to  be  affected.  The  softer  a 
water  is,  the  more  liable  it  is  as  a  rule  to  take  up  lead  ;  and 
the  more  silica  or  lime  it  has,  the  less  is  it  apt  to  take  up  the 
poisonous  metal.  When  hardness  is  due  to  sulphates,  it  is 
more  probable  that  the  water  will  take  up  lead  than  when 
carbonates  cause  the  hardness.  To  determine  whether  or 
not  house  pipes  give  off  lead  to  the  water  that  they  con- 
duct, draw  off  a  gallon  or  more  of  the  water  after  it  has 
stood  in  them  over  night  (or  for  days  if  possible).  This 
water  is  then  tested  as  explained  on  pages  253  and  290. 
Water  that  has  been  standing  should  flow  out  a  long  time 
from  pipes  before  any  is  taken  for  drinking  or  cooking. 

Lead-encased,  block-tin-lined  pipes  are  somewhat  used. 
They  should  be  of  good  quality.     A  flaw  by  which  the  lead 


WATER-PIPES.       ICE 


S'^S 


coating  becomes  exposed  to  contact  with  the  water  may 
cause  lead  to  enter  by  galvanic  action  of  the  two  metals. 
These  pipes  have  hardly  proved  a  success.  Those  who  can 
afford  the  expense,  use  brass  pipes  coated  with  tin.  Water 
that  has  stood  in  these  ought  to  be  allowed  to  flow  off  before 
any  is  taken  for  drinking  or  preparing  food.  Galvan- 
ized iron  is  very  good  for  pipes.  Yet  even  these  are  slowly 
but  continuously  affected  by  the  water,  and  zinc  is  dissolved 
from  the  coating  of  the  pipe.  The  symptoms  coming  from 
the  presence  of  zmc  in  the  water  are  said  to  be  constipation 
and  in  any  case  are  muc/i  less  serious  than  the  effects  of  lead. 

Pipes  must  be  put  where  they  are  protected  from  the  ex- 
treme cold  of  freezing  weather.  Thick  felt  covering  the 
pipe  guards  it  somewhat  from  freezing  if  exposed  to  severe 
cold.  By  reason  of  the  growing  abundance  of  electric 
currents  carried  through  insufficiently  insulated  wires,  under- 
ground water-pipes  (and  gas-pipes)  are  at  times  eaten  away 
by  electrolytic  action.  This  is  especially  the  case  when  lead 
is  used  for  pipes,  although  iron  may  also  be  attacked.  As 
before  said,  storage  tanks  should  not  be  of  lead  or  soldered 
metals.  Wood  is  preferable  to  lead,  although  not  durable 
or  cleanly.     Iron  or  slate  (or  stone)  serves  better. 

Ice  should  come  from  a  pure  lake  or  river.  Otherwise 
bacteria,  possibly  harmful,  freeze  into  the  mass  of  the  ice 
and  there  remain  alive  for  weeks  or  months.  Hence,  all  ice 
from  a  river  or  lake  that  receives  sewage  must  be  regarded 
as  hygienically  inferior.  In  no  case  ought  such  impure  ice 
to  be  swallowed  or  put  into  water  or  allowed  to  come  into 
contact  with  food.  Water  is  most  healthful  if  drunk  with- 
out icing.  (See  page  259.)  The  bottle,  or  other  container 
of  the  water,  can  be  put  near  ice  or  can  be  surrounded  by 
ice  if  great  cold  be  desired.  Cooling-coils,  which  are  fre- 
quently employed  to  carry  water  through  ice  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cooling  the  water  without  bringing  it  into  contact 
with  the  ice,  ought  not  to  be  of  lead. 


314  WATER    AND    WATER    SUPPLIES 

Since  freezing  does  not  kill  the  bacteria  of  water,  and 
since  very  many  supplies  are  suspicious,  it  is  safest  to  use 
only  ice  that  is  made  artificially  of  water  that  is  carefully 
distilled.  Yet  some  distilled  water  produces  ice  that  has  a 
taste  like  boiled  water.  This  defect  can  be  remedied  some- 
what by  care  and  is  not  a  very  serious  one.  Artificial-ice 
making  is  practicable,  cheap,  and  certain  of  insuring  a  suffi- 
cient supply.  The  most  recent  improvements  in  water  stills 
and  in  anhydrous  ammonia  ice-machines  enable  such  whole- 
some ice  to  be  made  at  a  cost  so  low  that  it  can  be  sold  at 
a  profit  in  New  York  or  Philadelphia,  for  instance,  for  less 
than  the  price  that  dealers  charge  for  natural  ice. 


DISPOSAL   OF   FLUID   WASTE.    SEWERS 

Refuse  matters  are  produced  in  great  quantities  by  the 
processes  of  daily  life  and  in  various  industries.  As  much 
as  is  easily  possible,  these  waste  products  ought  to  be  taken 
away  at  once,  especially  if  they  tend  to  interfere  with  health 
or  the  comfort  and  usual  pursuits  of  those  who  may  be 
affected  by  such  refuse. 

Ashes,  garbage  (and  offal)  as  well  as  street  sweepings  are, 
in  towns  and  cities,  usually  removed  by  the  municipality. 
This  refuse  is  in  some  cases  disposed  of  at  immediate  pri- 
vate expense.  So  also  is  stable  manure.  In  whatever  way 
this  is  managed,  careful  control  is  needed  to  see  that  it  is 
effectively  done  and  that  the  means  employed  allow  nothing 
to  escape  into  the  streets  or  be  deposited  in  places  where 
such  refuse  can  be  or  become  in  any  way  unhealthful. 

Besides  these  coarser  matters,  very  important  waste  prod- 
ucts constantly  come  from  our  bodies,  as  well  as  from 
households,  stables  and  various  establishments.  Much  im- 
portant waste  comes  from  city  street  washings.  When,  as  is 
usual  in  cities  of  any  size,  these  matters  are  conducted  off  in 
water  holding  them  dissolved  and  in  suspension,  we  class 
the  fluid  as  selvage.  This  contains  much  organic  matter 
and  also  innumerable  putrefactive  microorganisms  that  mul- 
tiply rapidly  upon  this  matter,  since  they  find  it  very 
nutritious. 

By  the  vital  activity  of  these  low  forms  of  life,  the  organic 
substances  are  decomposed  and  gases  are  produced.  Some 
of  these  gases  are  not  detectable  by  their  odor,  while  others 
are  very  offensive  even  though  presumably  not  in  them- 
selves  harmful   in   the   amounts   in  which  they  reach  us. 


3l6  DISPOSAL    OF    FLUID    WASTE.       SEWERS 

Without  these  microorganisms,  there  can  be  no  decompo- 
sition. As,  however,  these  are  invariably  present,  it  is  im- 
portant to  remove  such  filth  before  the  destructive  processes 
have  gone  very  far.  With  all  these  decomposable  waste  mat- 
ters, it  is  essential  to  utilize  the  inevitable  bacteria  present. 
We  must  cause  the  microorganisms  there  to  aid  us  as 
scavengers  rather  than  permit  them  to  trouble  us  by  their 
offensive  and  dangerous  activity. 

Harmful  bacteria,  that  are  the  presumable  cause  of 
serious  diseases,  are  always  to  be  suspected  in  sewage,  nota- 
bly when  that  comes  from  hospitals,  from  dwellings  where 
infectious  diseases  exist,  from  certain  streets,  and  at  times 
from  other  sources.  Fortunately,  most  of  these  disease-pro- 
ducing bacteria  are  much  less  hardy  than  the  ordinary  mi- 
croorganisms of  sewage  and  are  apt  to  be  speedily  killed  by 
reason  of  the  natural  antagonism  and  strife  occurring  among 
these  low  forms  of  life.  Yet  it  is  not  well  to  depend  upon 
so  uncertain  a  factor  of  such  indefinite  force ;  for  the  dis- 
ease-producing bacteria  can  occasionally  live  for  a  consid- 
erable time  in  sewage.  If  this  then  become  dried  in  a  fresh 
state  and  allowed  to  be  diffused  about  as  dust,  these  harmful 
germs  can  cause  infectious  disease. 

Sewage  and  other  refuse,  having  in  it  the  discharges  of 
cholera,  typhoid  fever  and  other  diseases,  must  not  be 
allowed  to  pollute  the  water  which  we  drink.  The  peril 
from  this  source  is  very  great.  If  fresh  sewage  be  allowed 
to  flow  into  streams  or  other  sources  of  water  supplies,  it 
must  not  enter  except  down-stream  below  any  neighboring 
water  intakes  and  as  many  miles  as  possible  from  the  place 
whence  any  other  community  is  obliged  to  derive  its  water. 

In  flowing  streams,  the  beneficent  action  of  sunlight,  the 
oxygen  of  fresh  air,  and  other  factors,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  the  antagonism  of  various  microorganisms 
present  in  river-water,  tend  to  destroy  after  a  while  all  of  the 
harmful  bacteria  that  come  with  sewage  or  by  other  means 


SEWAGE    IN    RIVERS  317 

into  the  current  of  a  river.  Dilution  in  the  great  and  con- 
stantly enlarging  volume  of  flowing  water  is  also  operative 
to  an  immense  extent  in  lessening  the  danger  that  comes 
from  contamination  of  rivers. 

Sewage,  therefore,  can  as  a  rule  be  allowed  to  flow  into 
most  of  our  large  rivers  if  this  be  done  advisedly  and  with 
due  regard  for  the  health  of  all.  Where  the  rivers  are  small 
and  the  volume  of  sewage  is  large,  as  in  thickly  populated 
valleys,  it  is  usually  safer  to  seek  some  other  and  more 
hygienic  disposal  of  the  sewage  than  allowing  it  to  flow  into 
a  river  to  endanger  the  health  of  those  using  the  water  of 
such  a  stream. 

The  harmfulness  of  sewage  is  lessened  if  all  discharges 
from  persons  having  infectious  diseases  (as  also  all  infected 
matters)  are  always  promptly  and  properly  disinfected  by  the 
liberal  use  of  fresh  milk  of  lime  or  by  the  other  means  indi- 
cated later  in  the  pages  treating  of  Disinfection. 

Sewers  are  underground  pipes  which  form  an  indispens- 
able part  of  the  public  works  of  a  civilized  city  that  has  a 
supply  of  water.  The  removal  of  the  human  excreta,  that  in 
some  towns  are  received  in  privies  and  substitutes  for  water- 
closets,  is  only  a  very  small  though  yet  an  important  part  of 
the  service  rendered  by  sewers  in  promptly  disposing  of  the 
fluid  waste  of  a  community. 

Sewers  (and  the  gravel  that  ought  to  be  laid  along  them) 
insure  a  varying  amount  of  drainage  of  the  soil  with  the 
consequent  removal  of  such  uncleanliness  as  the  water  thus 
carried  off  may  have  received  from  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Rain-water  from  streets  and  houses  usually  flows  into 
sewers.  They  also  receive  the  drainage  from  the  interior 
of  dwellings,  manufactories,  stables  and  other  buildings. 
The  connection  between  these  and  the  sewer  is  through 
carefully  joined  pipes,  preferably  not  more  than  six  inches 
in  size.  Toward  the  sewer,  these  house-junction  pipes  may 
be  of  sound,  glazed  earthenware,  very  carefully  selected  and 


3l8  DISPOSAL    OF    FLUID    WASTE.       SEWERS 

evenly  laid.  Near  the  building,  this  pipe  must  be  of  iron, 
for  that  is  much  less  fragile  than  even  the  best  vitrified  earth- 
enware. The  cast-iron  pipe  known  as  ''extra  heavy"  is  to 
be  preferred.  Lead  is  not  only  too  expensive  but  also  unsuit- 
able. Rats  can  gnaw  through  it.  A  "  relieving  arch  "  or 
large  iron  pipe  should  be  in  a  wall  at  the  place  where  a 
drainage-pipe  passes  under  or  through  that  wall. 

Between  the  common  sewer  and  the  house  plumbing, 
there  should  be  a  trap  holding  water  of  a  depth  sufficient  to 
prevent  any  inflow  of  bacteria  or  air  from  the  sewer.  [Traps 
are  spoken  of  in  the  following  chapter.     See  page  333.] 

This  trap  must  be  where  it  can  be  readily  got  at  for  the 
purpose  of  inspection.  The  location  shown  by  the  down- 
ward bend  of  the  pipe  [rmining  trap)  just  inside  of  the  wall 
in  Fig.  47  is  a  good  one.  Some  intelligent  people  contend 
that  such  a  trap  is  undesirable  because  it  does  not  allow  the 
public  sewer  to  be  ventilated  through  the  house  plumbing ! 

For  sewers  that  are  properly  constructed  and  well  man- 
aged, ventilation  through  house  drainage  systems  is  not 
necessary.  If  no  matters  that  enter  are  allowed  to  be  re- 
tained in  sewers,  and  if  all  sewage  is  kept  in  constant  motion 
from  the  time  it  enters  the  smallest  pipes  till  after  it  flows 
out  of  the  largest  sewers  through  which  it  has  to  go,  sewers 
can  ventilate  themselves  through  the  usual  openings. 

The  best  safeguard  is  to  have  the  sewers  so  copiously 
flushed  by  free  use  of  water  that  no  organic  matter  lingers 
in  them  to  decompose  and  produce  gas  or  to  favor  the  exist- 
ence and  activity  of  bacteria  which  need  to  be  feared  vastly 
more  than  any  ordinary  sewer-gas.  The  circulation  of  air 
that  is  needed  in  sewers  ought  to  be  provided  for  by  oc- 
casional ventilating  openings  from  the  street.  Perforated 
manhole  covers  answer  the  purpose.  If  sewers  are  so  de- 
fectively made  and  cared  for  that  matters  remain  in  them 
and  decompose,  or  if  illuminating  gas  leaks  into  them,  they 
ought  certainly  not  to  be  ventilated  through  any  house. 


TRAP    BETWEEN    HOUSE    AND    SEWER 


319 


It  is  unwise  to  construct  our  house  drainage  systems  so  as 
to  draw  air  up  from  a  sewer  and  into  and  through  our  build- 
ings. If  the  germs  of  diphtheria  or  other  infectious  disease 
be  present  because  of  the  unclean  sewer  having  received 
disease  discharges,  these  germs  may  become  dried  and  then 
be  carried  into  or  through  the  house  by  such  an  upward 
current  of  air  from  the  sewer  as  results  when  no  trap  inter- 
venes between  the  sewer  and  the  house.  If  then  the  plumb- 
ing be  defective,  these  bacteria  of  disease  may  thereby 
effect  lodgment  in  a  house.  It  is  claimed  by  recent  medical 
observers  that  they  do  so  under  such  circumstances. 

By  the  use  of  a  trap  as  shown  in  Fig.  47,  the  private 
house-drain  contains  no  filth  except  such  as  comes  from 
within  the  house.  By  liberal  use  of  water  there,  all  matters 
are  driven  out  into  the  sewer.  Once  in  the  sewer,  such  mat- 
ters ought  to  be  carried  off  so  quickly  by  the  abundant  flow 
of  water  that  they  neither  dry  and  become  dust  nor  decom- 
pose to  give  off  gases. 

Sewers  vary  in  size  between  six  inches  and  twenty 
feet.  An  eight-inch  sewer-pipe  is  much 
less  liable  to  become  obstructed  than 
a  six-inch  one.  In  Paris  some  are 
larger  than  fifteen  feet.  New  York 
City,  with  more  than  440  miles  of 
sewers,  has  only  one  (on  Canal  Street) 
that  is  nearly  as  large  as  that.  Ten 
feet  is  the  largest  size  as  a  rule,  and 
that  is  very  large.  The  usual  error  is 
to  make  sewers  too  large,  even  with  all 
due  allowances  for  prospective  growth 
of  a  city.  The  smallest  and  largest 
are  round  :  the  medium-sized  ones  are  of  a  shape  resem- 
bling an  inverted  oval,  as  shown  in  Fig.  44. 

This  form  is  stronger,  cleaner  and  better  washed  by  a 
small   flow  of  water.     Yet  a  large  volume   can    also   flow 


320  DISPOSAL    OF    FLUID    WASTE.       SEWERS 

through  a  sewer  of  such  a  shape.  The  hollow  base,  shown 
at  the  bottom  of  the  sewer  in  the  figure,  is  not  commonly 
used,  brick  being  usually  employed  for  the  entire  sewer 
when  thirty  inches  or  more  in  diameter.  Yet  such  a  hol- 
low base,  made  heavier  and  stronger  than  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration, is  considered  as  of  value  in  a  soil  that  will  not  wash 
in  and  undermine  ;  for  it  serves  to  carry  off  much  drainage 
water  from  the  soil.  The  smallest,  up  to  fifteen  inches,  are 
of  round  salt-glazed  pipe,  jointed  with  cement  and  laid  in 
concrete.     Larger  ones  are  of  brick. 

A  city  of  25,000  inhabitants  may  get  along  well  with  main 
sewers  no  larger  than  two  feet,  and  a  few  of  our  cities  have 
much  smaller  sewers.  Yet  it  is  regarded  by  superintendents 
of  sewers,  and  others  who  are  personally  familiar  with  sewer 
cleaning,  that  obstructions  cause  much  more  trouble  in 
the  smallest  pipes  than  in  large  ones.  There  is  a  limit  to 
the  availability  of  small  sewers  for  large  cities.  The  experi- 
ence of  Omaha  illustrates  this.  The  small  sewer  system 
introduced  there  has  been  almost  entirely  reconstructed. 

Sewers  must  be  very  smooth  within.  They  ought 
to  be  water-tight.  Otherwise,  water  with  organic  matter  and 
bacteria  can  go  out  through  the  walls.  With  good  sewers, 
very  little  contamination  of  surrounding  ground  occurs. 
The  bricks  used  need  to  be  firm  and  impervious.  Glazing 
on  the  exposed  surface  of  such  bricks  is  an  advantage.  To 
prevent  matters  from  accumulating,  frequent  flushing  with 
large  amounts  of  water  is  necessary.  Wherever  such  unde- 
sirable things  as  "  dead  ends  "  or  long,  irregularly  used 
branch  pipes  are  permitted  to  exist,  flush-tanks  are  required 
in  order  to  drive  large  volumes  of  water  through  the  pipes 
at  times. 

If,  during  the  construction,  a  crossing  stream  of  water  is 
met  at  the  sewer  level,  this  is  either  run  into  the  sewer 
or  else  the  sewer  is  made  to  deflect  its  course  downward. 
It  thereby  describes  a  curve  under  the  stream  and,  after 


IMPORTANT    DETAILS    OF    SEWERS  32I 

passing  that,  is  caused  to  rise  so  as  to  return  to  its  former 
level.  A  suitable  narrowing  of  the  sewer  at  such  a  depres- 
sion, renders  the  stream  swifter  and  thus  prevents  lodgment 
of  particles  of  sewage. 

When  one  line  of  pipe  makes  a  junction  with  another,  the 
smaller  should  be  at  least  a  little  above 
the  larger.  This  junction  is  not  to  be 
at  right  angles,  but  must  always  be  at  an 
oblique  angle  as  shown  by  the  Y-shaped 
joint  piece  in  Fig.  45.  In  this  way,  ob- 
structions in  the  pipe  are  prevented.  *  '^^' 
The  figure  is  introduced  to  illustrate  the  readiness  with  which 
serious  leaks  in  drain-pipes  occur  unless  great  care  is  taken 
to  have  the  pipes  properly  matched  and  accurately  set  in 
place  with  perfect  joints. 

Especially  necessary  is  it  to  have,  throughout  the  entire 
length,  a  continuous  fall  adjusted  so  as  to  equalize  the 
velocities  of  the  current.  This  calls  for  good  engineering. 
The  velocity  ought  to  exceed  two  feet  per  second.  Sewers  of 
ordinary  brick  cannot  stand  a  permanent  velocity  of  more 
than  eight  feet  per  second.  The  downward  slope  is  to  be  at 
least  I  in  1,500  for  large  sewers  ;  i  in  400  to  700  for  me- 
dium sized  ;  i  in  200  for  the  smallest.  Inside  of  the  house, 
the  rate  of  incline  of  the  drainage-pipe  must  never  be  less 
than  I  in  48.     All  curves  must  be  gentle. 

All  portions  of  sewers  are  to  be  at  least  three  feet  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  in  any  case  below  the  level  of 
freezing.  If  the  ground  in  which  the  pipes  are  to  rest  be 
found  defective  in  any  place,  it  requires  to  be  carefully 
prepared  and  packed  down.  To  support  the  smaller  pipes 
(while  they  are  being  laid)  at  the  proper  level  in  the  trench 
dug  for  them.  Waring  suggests  "  saddle-piles "  made  of 
inch  boards,  pointed  at  the  bottom  and  sawed  out  at  the  top 
so  that  the  pipe  rests  in  and  upon  these. 

Coarse  gravel  is  the  best  filling  under  these  pipes  and 
21 


322 


DISPOSAL    OF    FLUID    WASTE.       SEWERS 


sewers  ;  for  it  serves  as  a  drain  to  allow  the  ground- water 
to  run  off.  Until  after  the  earth  is  thrown  in  around  the 
pipe  and  carefully  filled  in  for  two  feet,  no  one  should  step 
upon  the  filling  or  throw  rocks  or  dump  earth  upon  the 
pipe,  since  bad  cracks  may  thereby  be  caused. 

From  the  surface  of  the  street,  manholes  with  perforated 
covers  go  down  to  the  sewer  at  intervals.  These  are  intro- 
duced for  ventilation  and  to  allow  inspection  and  cleaning. 
There  ought  to  be  more  than  a  dozen  of  these  for  every 
mile  of  sewer.  If  the  pipe  between  two  manholes  is  straight, 
the  recognition  of  obstructions  is  very  easy.  In  some  cities, 
small  "lamp-holes  "  are  introduced  at  intervals  of  not  more 
than  two  hundred  feet.  If  a  lighted  lamp  be  lowered  down 
one  of  these  and  a  good  mirror  (at  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degrees)  be  at  the  bottom  of  the  next  opening,  the  interven- 
ing space  can  be  seen,  provided  that  the  sewer  is  straight. 

Men  are  constantly  patrolling 
the  larger  sewers.  For  cleaning 
the  very  smallest,  a  float  and  an 
oiled  cord  (drawn  by  it)  are  passed 
through  by  the  agency  of  the  cur- 
rent. Then  a  brush  attached  to  a 
stronger  cord  is  pulled  through 
the  small  sewer-pipe.  To  clean 
large  sewers,  a  temporary  dam- 
ming up  of  the  flow  is  often  em- 
ployed. Gates  may  be  used  for 
the  purpose.  The  brisk  rush  of 
the  volume  of  retained  water  has 
a  scouring  effect. 
To  prevent  very  large  objects  from  entering  and  obstruct- 
ing the  sewers,  gratings  are  placed  at  the  opening  from  the 
street  into  the  sewer.  It  is  in  some  places  necessary  to  have 
cylindrical  catch-basins  (see  Fig.  46).  These  gratings  and 
basins,  or  such  devices  as  "hanging  traps,"  serve  to  inter- 


FlG.  46. 


SEWERS.       "•  SEWER-GAS  "  323 

cept  all  sorts  of  things  that  are  thrown  into  them.  They 
require  to  be  cleaned  often.  They  especially  need  cleaning 
after  a  heavy  rain.  In  such  catch-basins,  the  sewer  inspec- 
tors discover  at  times  very  large  planks  as  well  as  even 
much  more  bulky  objects  which  enter  in  some  unexplain- 
able  way  and  occasionally  get  into  sewers.  Small  sewers 
become  thereby  stopped  up.  Traps  to  sewer  inlets  restrict 
somewhat  the  ventilation  of  sewers. 

Where  gutters  empty  directly  into  sewers,  there  may  be  a 
slight  depression  on  the  bottom  of  the  sewer  in  order  to 
catch  sand  and  other  particles  that  pass  the  usual  grating. 
As  already  said,  flush-tanks  are  needed  for  cleaning  out 
small  sewers,  particularly  if  these  pipes  have  dead  ends. 
The  more  pure  water  we  cause  to  go  through  any  sewer,  the 
cleaner  the  sewer  will  be.  Turbid  water  is  not  desirable  for 
this  purpose,  since  it  tends  to  deposit  silt,  and  forms  a  film 
on  the  walls  of  the  sewer.  All  breaks  in  sewers  need  to  be 
promptly  repaired,  for  through  these  much  leakage  of  filth 
into  the  soil  may  occur.  Steam  is  to  be  kept  out  of  sewers 
and  drain-pipes. 

Sewer-air,  when  analyzed,  proves  to  be  less  impure  than 
it  is  generally  considered  by  people  unfamiliar  with  the  exact 
facts.  Although  the  filth  of  streets  as  well  as  of  houses 
and  other  buildings  flows  into  the  sewers,  these  receptacles 
have  very  few  bacteria  in  their  air,  and  those  bacteria  are 
of  harmless  varieties.  This  is  perhaps  because  of  the  usually 
good  ventilation  of  our  sewers  and  owing  to  the  moisture  of 
the  walls  which  arrests  the  germs  of  the  air. 

Sewer-air  seems  less  dangerous  to  breathe  than  the  dusty 
air  of  our  worst  city  streets  and  certainly  less  so  than  the  air 
of  many  ill-ventilated  public  rooms  where  the  air  is  bad 
and  where  dry  bacteria  are  floating  about  with  the  dust  of 
the  air.  The  general  high  average  of  good  health  among 
men  who  work  regularly  inside  of  sewers  is  noted  by  scien- 
tific observers  in  this  country  as  well  as  in  Europe.     No  in- 


324  DISPOSAL    OF    FLUID    WASTE.       SEWERS 

fectious  diseases,  that  possibly  could  be  derived  from  a 
sewer,  are  carried  by  them  to  their  families,  so  far  as  can  be 
learned  by  inquiry.  Yet  these  men  are  originally  neither 
conspicuously  strong  nor  very  careful  about  their  habits. 

"  Sewer-gas,"  therefore,  in  the  sense  in  which  the  term 
is  still  employed  by  a  few  and  in  which  it  some  years  ago 
was  very  widely  used  to  mask  ignorance,  is  presumably  very 
much  of  a  inyth.  Gases  can  of  course  exist  in  sewers. 
They  occur  anywhere  that  bacteria  cause  organic  matters  to 
decompose.  The  gases  are  naturally  most  offensive  wJiere 
the  defective  construction  and  insufficient  flushing  of  the 
sewers  allow  the  moist  filth  to  stand  and  then  necessarily  to 
decompose.  Yet  with  fair  ventilation  of  proper  sewers,  and 
certainly  with  suitable  flushing  by  abundant  water,  these 
gases  need  not  be  considered  a  menace  to  the  health  of  the 
average  person,  especially  when  neither  the  men  who  work 
in  the  sewers  nor  their  famiUes  appear  to  have  any  notable 
degree  of  general  or  special  illness. 

The  one  gas  that  is  conspicuously  dangerous  in  sewers,  as 
also  whenever  it  leaks  in  any  way  into  rooms  where  people 
live,  is  illuminating  gas  as  supplied  through  pipes  laid  in  the 
streets  and  into  houses.  The  danger  of  this  is  especially 
spoken  of  on  page  132. 

The  author,  on  inquiring  at  the  New  York  City  sewer 
department,  found  that,  in  the  only  genuine  cases  where  dis- 
tinct symptoms  of  any  kind  had  been  traced  to  "sewer- 
gas,"  it  was  always  illuminating  gas  that  acted  as  the  nox- 
ious agent.  That  there  was  no  error  on  the  part  of  the 
informants  is  seen  from  the  fact  that  the  worst  cases,  with 
alarming  unconsciousness  and  the  other  familiar  symptoms 
of  illuminating-gas  poisoning,  were  observed  in  wholly  new 
sewers  into  which  gas  had  leaked  from  the  neighboring  mains. 
No  sewage  had  ever  been  near  these  sewers. 

Any  odor  from  a  sewer  indicates  either  that  illuminating 
gas   is  leaking  into  it  or  that  it  is  insufficiently  cleaned. 


SEWAGE  325 

Wherever  sewers  are  introduced,  they  must  not  only  be 
carefully  planned  and  well  constructed,  but  in  all  cases  an 
abundant  supply  of  pure  water  is  needed  as  well.  Thereby 
the  sewers  can  be  properly  flushed  out  and  kept  clean. 
Those  who  are  not  familiar  with  public  works,  need  then 
never  realize  that  such  things  as  sewers  exist.  Proper  sew- 
ers neither  offend  the  senses  nor  endanger  the  health. 

Sewage  contains  phosphates  and  other  salts  as  well  as 
a  considerable  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter.  These  are 
dissolved  or  suspended  in  a  large  volume  of  water.  Sewage 
is  accordingly  a  valuable  though  a  very  dilute  fertilizer  for 
cultivated  ground.  When  the  sewage  of  a  city  is  discharged 
into  a  river  or  otherwise  thrown  away  into  the  most  con- 
venient body  of  water,  there  is  wasted  an  estimated  manure 
value  of  five  times  as  many  dollars  as  the  city  contains 
inhabitants. 

The  human  excrement  yields  daily  only  two-fifths  as 
large  an  amount  of  solids  as  are  contained  in  the  urine. 
The  entire  amount  from  both  of  these  contained  in  the  sew- 
age makes  only  a  very  small  fraction  of  the  total  solids  con- 
tributed to  sewage  by  various  industries,  kitchen  and  other 
house  washings,  street  water,  stable  rinsings  and  from  other 
possible  sources.  In  analyses  of  sewage  from  various  Eng- 
lish towns,  in  some  of  which  (by  reason  of  their  having 
water-closets)  solid  excrement  was  regularly  added  to  the 
sewage,  while  in  others  the  excrement  was  disposed  of  by 
being  received  in  privies  and  otherwise  kept  out  of  the  sew- 
ers, the  difference  in  organic  contents  between  the  one  sort 
of  sewage  and  the  other  was  very  slight  or  almost  none  at 
all.  Sewage  varies  greatly  in  its  character  according  to  the 
time  of  day  at  which  a  sample  is  taken.  The  amount  of 
organic  matter  in  sewage  averages  between  25  and  30  grains 
per  gallon. 

That  the  comparatively  insignificant  proportion  of  organic 
matter  which  comes  from  the  healthy  human  body  can  have 


326  DISPOSAL    OF    FLUID    WASTE.       SEWERS 

much  effect  upon  the  water  of  the  rivers  into  which  it  is  car- 
ried with  the  sewage,  seems  therefore  out  of  the  question. 
//  is  when  disease  germs  enter  sewage  that  dajiger  of  infection 
is  present.  The  proper  place  for  the  disinfection  of  disease 
discharges  is  in  the  sick-room,  and  the  best  time  for  dis- 
infecting is  before  these  discharges  enter  the  sewer.  Yet 
only  a  small  portion  of  cases  are  properly  attended  to  in 
this  respect.  Hence  the  hygienic  importance  of  consider- 
ing in  how  far  the  various  processes  for  the  treatment  of 
sewage  are  of  value  to  the  health  of  the  communities  using 
the  water  of  rivers  or  lakes  into  which  sewage  has  entered. 

Processes  for  the  treatment  of  sewage  always  add 
considerably  to  the  expense  of  disposing  of  it.  When, 
owing  to  the  peculiar  situation  of  a  city  or  because  of  legis- 
lative or  other  restriction  these  processes  have  to  be  under- 
taken, recourse  is  had  usually  to  mechanical  and  chemical 
means  or  to  irrigation  fields.  Electric  processes  are  effect- 
ive, yet  are  exceedingly  expensive. 

Chemical  means  have  been  very  carefully  and  instruct- 
ively employed  in  England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 
Especial  study  of  the  processes  at  Frankfort,  Wiesbaden  and 
Essen  should  be  made  by  those  who  are  interested  in 
investigating  these  in  the  places  where  they  have  been  most 
scientifically  managed.  Mr.  Crimp,  whose  experience  and 
observation  at  the  works  in  Wimbledon,  London,  and  else- 
where in  England,  make  him  an  authority,  states  that  the 
settling  tanks  at  Dortmund,  in  Germany,  are  much  better 
than  the  English  ones.  They  are  shaped,  at  the  bottom,  like 
an  inverted  cone  and  are  deeper  than  those  of  the  Rockner- 
Rothe  system  at  Essen.  They  also  allow  a  continuous  flow. 
This  appears  to  be  superior  to  the  intermittent  system. 

A  preliminary  straining  removes  paper,  twigs  and  other 
floating  substances.  Sand  ought  to  be  allowed  to  settle 
under  a  slowed  current.  Then,  to  the  clear  sewage  in 
tanks,  milk  of  lime  is  added.     This  is  made  of  thoroughly 


CHEMICAL    TREATMENT    OF    SEWAGE  327 

slaked  lime  with  about  ten  times  its  weight  of  water.  This 
milk  of  lime  is  mixed  with  the  strained  sewage  so  that 
five  grains  of  lime  are  used  for  every  gallon  of  sewage. 
Occasionally,  three  times  as  much  as  this  is  used  ;  but  any 
excess  is  by  some  considered  undesirable  as  favoring  subse- 
quent decomposition  because  of  its  alkalinity. 

The  lime  takes  up  carbonic  acid  that  is  in  the  sewage  and 
thus  causes  the  lime  that  is  already  present  as  a  bicarbonate 
to  be  precipitated  as  insoluble  lime  carbonate.  This  carries 
down  much  of  the  suspended  matter  called  s/t/dge.  That  is 
later  burned  or  otherwise  disposed  of.  Sometimes  it  is  used 
extensively  for  fertilizing,  as  at  Birmingham,  in  England. 
Usually,  however,  this  sludge  is  not  popular  for  agricultural 
purposes.  Still  it  has  been  demonstrated  to  be  of  value  as 
a  fertilizer.  Near  Worcester,  Mass.,  three  or  more  tons  of 
Hungarian  grass  to  the  acre  are  raised  on  gravelly  soil  by 
aid  of  such  sludge. 

Other  chemicals  are  at  times  used  with  (or  without) 
lime.  The  chief  of  these  are  a/um  sulphate  (common  alum) 
and  protosulphate  of  iron.  The  latter  is  used  in  London, 
and  is  greatly  valued.  All  of  these  processes,  when  well 
carried  out,  can  cause  the  water  (called  the  effluent)  which 
flows  off  from  the  sewage  to  be  rendered  clear  and  in- 
offensive. 

It  is  found  by  most  observers  that  if  a  thousand  parts  of 
sewage  water,  containing  the  bacilli  of  cholera  and  typhoid 
fever,  stand  for  a  few  hours  with  one  part  of  quick-lime 
present,  all  of  these  harmful  bacteria  will  have  been 
destroyed.  Klein  has  reported  that  the  water  is  satisfac- 
torily sterilized  when  lime  is  used  in  somewhat  lesser  ratio 
than  this,  or,  say,  a  little  more  than  forty-seven  grains  to 
the  imperial  gallon  (that  is,  three  tons  of  lime  to  a  million 
gallons  of  sewage).  This  is  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
lime  than  is  commonly  used. 

The   opponents  of  the  system  state  that,  in  the  ordinary 


328  DISPOSAL    OF    FLUID    WASTE.       SEWERS 

cases,  many  bacteria  remain  alive.  Pfeiffer,  of  Wiesbaden, 
asserts  this.  From  what  we  know  by  laboratory  researches 
it  seems  probable  that  very  much  more  than  ten  grains  per 
gallon  ought  to  be  used  in  order  to  insure  destruction  of  the 
harmful  bacteria  present  in  sewage.  The  processes  which 
(like  the  Rockner-Rothe,  at  Essen)  use  the  sludge  mass 
settled  by  the  lime  to  filter  out  the  bacteria,  are  the  most 
satisfactory. 

Use    of  Soil   for   Purifying  Sewage 

Sewage  poured  upon  light  porous  soil  will  filter  through. 
The  "nitrifying  "  bacteria  present  in  the  upper  few  feet  of 
such  a  soil  will,  in  the  presence  of  oxygen,  have  converted 
the  ammonia  and  various  other  organic  matters  of  the  sew- 
age more  or  less  perfectly  into  carbonates,  nitrites  and 
nitrates.  When  working  at  their  best,  such  soil  filters  can — 
according  to  the  reports  of  the  valuable  experiments  of  the 
Massachusetts  Board  of  Health — remove  nearly  all  bacteria 
from  sewage  and  yet  treat  over  100,000  gallons  per  day  on 
an  acre  of  filtering  soil.  These  results  are  superior  to  those 
that  any  other  part  of  the  world  has  ever  achieved.  In  some 
places,  only  twenty  thousand  gallons  are  treated  on  an  acre 
of  soil  in  a  day. 

Intej-mitfency  in  the  pouring  on  of  the  sewage  is  generally 
regarded  as  desirable  in  practice  for  the  reason  that  other- 
wise the  air  which  supplies  the  oxygen  needed  does  not 
always  penetrate  deep  enough  beneath  the  surface  to  enable 
the  bacteria  to  do  their  salutary  work.  If  continuous  filtra- 
tion be  attempted,  care  is  needed  to  keep  the  upper  layers 
permeable  to  air,  and  the  rate  of  filtration  must  be  slow. 

Sand,  used  for  such  filters,  soon  acquires  the  necessary 
bacteria  upon  the  surfaces  of  its  grains,  and  then  works  very 
effectively  for  years  of  sewage  filtration  if  not  too  much  be 
poured  upon  it  at  a  time.  Contrary  to  what  holds  good  re- 
garding the  surface  portions  of  the  filters  used  for  purifying 


SEWAGE    PURIFICATION    BY    THE    SOIL  329 

drinking-water  (see  page  309),  it  is  found  that  these  sewage 
filters  are  best  when  the  sand  grains  are  of  mixed  sizes,  no 
considerable  quantity  of  the  grains  being  finer  than  one  one- 
hundredth  of  an  inch  ;  gravel  coarser  than  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  should  not  abound. 

Some  alkali,  as  lime,  soda  or  potash,  must  be  present  in 
the  filter  in  order  to  combine  with  the  nitric  acid  produced 
by  the  bacteria,  especially  when  the  sewage  to  be  filtered  is 
acid.  The  mixing  of  a  little  limestone  with  the  upper  layers 
of  the  filter  serves  this  purpose.  Deep  filters  are  better  than 
shallow  ones.  They  should  not  be  less  than  six  feet  deep. 
In  cold  weather  the  process  is  less  perfect  than  when  the 
filter  beds  are  warm.  As  the  upper  layers  of  the  soil  are 
found  to  be  the  most  effective  for  sewage  destruction,  sub- 
soil irrigation  is  theoretically  unsatisfactory.  Practically  it 
is  not  to  be  recommended  by  hygienists. 

Surface  irrigation  is  a  similar  use  of  cultivable  soil  to 
produce  the  same  results  more  satisfactorily  by  employing  a 
much  larger  surface  of  ground.  The  natural  process  is 
greatly  aided  by  growing  crops,  especially  such  as  rye-grass 
and  vegetables,  upon  the  soil  to  which  the  sewage  is  judi- 
ciously supplied  in  an  intermittent  manner.  The  average 
allowance  of  ground  surface  is  one  acre  for  every  hundred 
people  of  the  population  whose  sewage  is  to  be  used  for 
irrigation.  Waring  states  that  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions  and  management  one  acre  may  suffice  for  the 
purification  of  the  sewage  of  one  thousand  persons  by  irriga- 
tion. It  is  well  to  be  very  liberal  with  soil  surface  in  such 
work.  No  less  than  250  square  feet  of  dry  soil  should  be 
allotted  for  the  sewage  of  each  individual  if  the  method  be 
carried  out  in  a  limited  way,  as  for  a  country  house.  It  is 
better  to  allow  more  than  twice  this  amount  of  land. 

Various  communities  have  made  costly  experiments  with 
the  method.  These  show  that  intermittent  deposit  of  the 
sewage  upon  the  soil  is  the  most  satisfactory.     The  fields 


330  DISPOSAL    OF    FLUID    WASTE.       SEWERS 

must  be  carefully  selected  and  graded  nearly  level  after  pro- 
viding porous  sub-soil  drain-pipes  two  inches  or  more  in 
size.  These  drain-pipes  are  at  a  depth  of  from  four  to  six 
feet,  and  are  to  be  arranged  in  parallel  lines  that  are  from 
twenty  to  one  hundred  feet  apart.  They  connect  with  larger 
drains  if  such  be  needed  to  empty  them. 

The  best  soil  for  sewage  irrigation  is  a  light,  porous  loam. 
Rich  moulds  are  found  good  for  the  purpose.  Clayey  soils 
are  unsatisfactory  because  not  sufficiently  porous.  If  there 
be  a  subsoil  of  gravel,  this  is  an  advantage.  By  means  of 
ridges  a  few  inches  high,  the  large  surfaces  are  divided  into 
smaller  fields  not  more  than  ten  acres  large.  They  are 
usually  three  or  five  times  as  long  as  broad. 

The  whole  surface  has  to  be  sHghtly  sloping  in  one  gen- 
eral direction  at  the  rate  of  at  least  one  foot  in  one  thousand. 
Some  prefer  a  greater  slope  than  this.  Across  the  fields,  the 
slope  is  double  that  which  it  is  lengthwise.  There  should  be 
no  places  where  water  can  lodge.  To  carry  the  sewage  from 
the  upper  corner  where  the  supply  flows  in,  ditches  run 
along  the  upper  edge  of  the  longer  sides.  Cross-ditches 
run  from  these  every  hundred  feet  or  so.  The  inflow- 
ing sewage  can  be  directed  to  any  part  as  desired  by  using 
boards  or  other  means  of  temporarily  cutting  off  the  flow 
from  other  parts.  The  proper  grading  of  the  surface  insures 
an  even  distribution  of  the  sewage  over  the  field. 

Within  four  hours  after  sewage  is  poured  on,  some  water 
will  have  passed  through  from  the  surface  of  the  irrigation 
bed  to  the  drainage-pipes  beneath. 

At  the  very  first,  this  water  is  less  pure  than  when  sew- 
age has  been  running  through  for  a  while.  The  flow  soon 
becomes  quite  pure  ;  for  the  ground  holds  back  all  of  the 
suspended  matter,  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  bacteria  of  the 
sewage,  and  three-fourths  of  its  dissolved  organic  matter. 

Sewage  is  conducted  to  the  irrigation  fields  in  pipes  or 
Other   conduits  which  permit  it  to  flow  by  gravity  to  the 


SEWAGE    IRRIGATION    FIELDS 


33^ 


highest  part  of  the  irrigation  ground.  The  cost  of  pumping 
should  be  avoided.  For  a  country  house,  the  use  of  tanks 
for  receiving  the  sewage  is  found  practical.  Sometimes 
these  tanks  are  adapted  so  as  to  be  moved  about  on  wheels. 

It  is  well  to  allow  sand  and  other  heavy  matter  to  subside 
in  the  sewage  before  that  is  poured  over  the  ground.  Float- 
ing particles  are  held  back  by  a  screen  and  removed  from 
time  to  time.  Sewage  can  be  applied  to  the  soil  in  winter, 
provided  that  the  pipes  be  guarded  against  great  cold  and 
if  an  excess  of  ice  do  not  form  over  the  field.  Even  where 
the  thermometer  remains  below  zero  (Fahr.)  for  days  at  a 
time,  it  is  found  that  sewage  (being  warmer  than  the  air) 
keeps  the  ground  from  freezing.  When  the  crops  raised  on 
these  fields  are  being  harvested,  the  constantly  flowing 
sewage  may  be  received  and  stored  for  a  while  in  a  tank. 

Besides  being  a  valuable  hygienic  means  of  restoring 
waste  organic  matter  to  its  place  in  nature  without  allowing 
it  to  undergo  any  offensive  or  unhealthful  changes,  such  irri- 
gation farms  can  yield  a  financial  profit  at  times.  This  is 
notably  so  on  a  light,  dry  and  porous  soil,  such  as  is  es- 
pecially adapted  to  the  purpose,  and  which  without  sewage 
would  yield  very  poor  crops.  Thus,  the  director  of  the 
Berlin  irrigation  fields  reports  that  some  of  the  fields  there 
yield  a  net  return  of  two  and  one-half  per  cent,  upon  the 
capital  invested  and  above  the  fixed  charges. 

Adverse  criticisms  are  occasionally  made  upon  this  highly 
healthful  means  of  rendering  filth  both  useful  and  harmless 
which  otherwise  might  become  a  dangerous  nuisance.  Such 
criticisms  are  said  by  the  especial  champions  of  sewage 
farming  to  be  due  either  to  ignorance,  and  possibly  the  ob- 
servation of  unintelligently  managed  irrigation  fields,  or  else 
those  who  condemn  the  method  are  said  to  be  actuated  by 
pecuniary  motives  which  are  hostile  to  the  success  of  any 
sewage  irrigation. 

The  most  valid  hygienic  objection  made  by  such  critics 


332  DISPOSAL    OF    FLUID    WASTE.       SEWERS 

appears  to  be  that  vegetables  raised  upon  a  sewage  farm 
may  have  unclean  and  unwholesome  matter  adherent  to 
them.  This  is  very  true  of  vegetables  from  any  farm  where 
manure  from  the  usual  sources  is  employed  as  a  fertilizer. 
Whether  during  epidemics  or  at  any  other  time,  sewage- 
farm  products,  as  also  all  vegetables  wherever  raised^  ought  to 
be  cooked  before  being  eaten'  by  human  beings.  The  ordi- 
nary cook  is  not  apt  to  cleanse  lettuce  and  other  vegetables 
properly.  Whoever  eats  such  food  uncooked,  runs  a  risk 
which  may  be  very  slight  or,  on  the  other  hand,  may  prove 
to  be  extremely  serious. 

[This  refers  to  the  possible  presence  of  disease  germs. 
The  frequent  use  of  "  Paris  green  "  or  other  poison,  for  the 
purpose  of  destroying  insects  upon  growing  plants,  also 
makes  it  desirable  that  all  vegetables  be  well  rinsed  if  of 
common  origin.] 

Prolonged  observations  show  that  properly  conducted 
sewage-irrigation  farms  are  not  in  any  demonstrable  way 
dangerous  to  the  neighborhood  in  which  they  are.  Laborers 
on  such  farms  are  reported  to  be  more  healthy  than  the 
average  of  their  class,  and  their  families,  when  residing  there, 
share  the  same  good  health.  Animals  working  on  the  fields, 
or  fed  with  the  products,  show  no  special  liability  to  para- 
sitic or  other  diseases.  Trout  and  other  delicate  fish  thrive 
well  in  the  clear  drainage  water  from  such  farms.  Yet  the 
original  sewage  water  is  fatal  to  these  fish.  Gourmets  and 
fish  experts  pronounce  the  color  and  taste  of  the  flesh  of 
trout  that  have  grown  in  such  purified  water  to  be  exquisite. 


HOUSE  DRAINAGE.     PLUMBING 

When  a  house  or  other  structure  designed  for  ordinary 
use  is  so  situated  that  it  can  readily  be  connected  with  a 
system  of  properly  constructed  and  well-managed  sewers,  it 
is  desirable  that  within  the  building  there  be  provided  cer- 
tain suitable  fixtures  for  receiving  the  excreta  and  fluid 
waste  resulting  from  the  occupancy.  Each  of  these  fixtures 
must  be  skilfully  connected,  with  the  utmost  mechanical  ex- 
actness, to  a  properly  arranged  waste-pipe  connecting  with 
an  iro7i  drainpipe.  These,  by  the  liberal  use  of  water,  insure 
the  prompt  removal  of  all  domestic  or  other  waste  that  enters 
the  sinks  or  water-closets  under  proper  conditions. 

This  complete  system  of  fixtures  and  pipes  constitutes  the 
house  drainage.  (See  page  334.)  It  connects  with  the 
public  sewer  as  explained  on  pages  317  and  318.  It  is  there 
recommended  as  being  upon  the  whole  best  that,  between 
the  house-drainage  pipes  and  the  sewer,  a  carefully  ad- 
justed downward  bend  called  a  running  trap  (represented 
just  inside  the  wall  in  Fig.  47,  and  shown  also  among  the 
traps  in  Fig.  49)  be  introduced  into  the  soil-pipe  so  as  to 
offer  a  water-seal  against  the  upward  and 
backward  passage  of  sewer  air  and  germs 
of  disease. 

For  the  same  reason,  traps  shaped  more 
or  less  like  the  letter  S  (in,  see  Fig.  48, 
representing  a  vertical  section  through  such        x^^ix^ 
a  trap)  must  invariably  exist  as  a  part  of  ^'^"  '^^■ 

each  waste-pipe  that  carries  waste  water  and  other  matters 
from  any  one  of  the  fixtures  (such  as  sinks,  water-closets, 
tubs,  etc.)  to  the  soil-  or  drain-pipe  into  which  they  all  empty 


334 


HOUSE    DRAINAGE.       PLUMBING 


Fig.  47. 

House  Drainage. 

The  running  trap  at  the  house  wall  is  often  deeper  and  more  rounded. 
It  is  common  not  to  have  overflow  pipes  on  the  lower  floor. 
The  traps  ought  to  be  as  near  as  practicable  to  their  fixtures. 
The  dotted  lines  indicate  the  continuous  walls  of  pipes  that  convey 
only  air  for  ventilating  purposes. 


TRAPS    AND    WATER-SEALS 


335 


through  the  separate  waste-pipes.      Fig.  49  shows  some  of 
the  different  shapes  which  such  traps  may  take. 


RUNNING 


RUNNINCY 


Fig.  49. 


A  trap  must  invariably  he  as  near  as  possible  to  the  fixture 
which  it  protects.  When  water  stands  in  traps  of  suitable 
shape,  it  wholly  prevents  any  possible  gas,  air  and  accom- 
panying bacteria  from  passing  backward  through  the  pipe. 

This  water  constitutes  what  is  called  a  water-seal^  an 
element  of  paramount  importance  in  all  house  drainage.  In 
Figs.  48  and  52,  the  depth  of  the  water-seal  is  indicated 
by  the  space  beside  which  the  words  "  water-seal  "  and  the 
brace  (})  stand.  When  all  of  the  water  that  constitutes  the 
seal  flows  out  or  is  drawn  out  or  driven  out  (as  explained 
later),  and  also  when  it  evaporates,  the  seal  is  "  lost." 

This  is  especially  liable  to  occur  when  the  trap  is  very 
shallow.  If  the  trap  be  defectively  constructed  (as  illus- 
trated in  the  bend  of  the  pipe  shown  in 
Fig.  50,  and  which  does  not  deserve  to  be 
called  a  trap),  it  is  of  course  a  false  reli- 
ance and  a  danger  to  health  ;  for  it  does  not 
prevent  the  flow  of  soil-pipe  air  and  possibly 
bacteria  back  into  the  room  where  the  fixture 
is  located  which  it  ought  to  guard  by  an  efficient  water-seal. 

In  Fig.  47,  the  traps  are  arranged  so  as  to  insure  proper 
water-seals.  The  running  trap  at  the  house  wall  is  there 
made  rather  shallow  so  as  not  to  obstruct  the  outflow  of  all 
household  waste  when  water  is  driven  through  for  the  pur- 
pose of  flushing  out  the  soil-pipe.     When  such  a  trap  is 


Fig.  50. 


zz^ 


HOUSE    DRAINAGE.       PLUMBING 


present  in  that  place,  there  should  be  3i  fresh-air  inlet  pipe  to 
the  lower  part  of  the  house  drain  as  indicated  in  that  figure. 
Even  in  the  absence  of  any  gross  defect,  it  is  found  that 
the  water-seal  is  not  constantly  preserved  under  ordinary 
conditions.  One  reason  for  this  is  that  very  deep  traps 
are  not  commonly  employed  ;  for,  although  deep  seals  are 
preserved  better  than  shallow  ones,  it  is  nevertheless  regarded 
as  best  that  traps  should  not  be  made  so  as  to  have  a  very 
deep  water-seal.  This  is  because  filth  is  especially  liable 
to  be  retained  in  deep  traps,  and  finally  much  may  accumu- 
late. The  seal  ought,  however,  to  be  at  least  an  inch  and 
a  half  or  two  inches  deep. 

A  common  cause  of  the  loss  of  a  water-seal  from  a  trap 
is  siphonage.  A  less  frequent,,  although  not  unimportant 
cause,  is  capillary  attraction  resulting  from  the  presence  of 
rags,  threads  or  hairs  in  it  and  on  the  outflow  edge.  The- 
water  can  thus  be  drawn  out  of  the  trap,  and  the  water-seal 
may  thereby  be  lost.  This  capillary  action  may  take  place 
in  any  trap,  but  is  probably  not  of  very  common  occurrence. 
To  prevent  it,  the  traps  and  pipes  must  be  very  smooth 
within,  and  of  the  same  even  size  throughout.  They  re- 
quire also  to  be  flushed  often  and  well.  Much  water  must 
flow  through  to  keep  them  clean. 

In  order  to  facilitate  cleaning  out  these 
traps  or  their  modifications,  openings  that 
close  tightly  by  perfectly  fitting  screw- 
plugs  can  be  introduced  at  the  bottom  of 
the  trap  (as  shown  by  Fig.  51  and  sev- 
eral of  the  previous  figures).  A  screw 
arrangement  for  the  same  purpose  ought 
to  exist  at  the  opening  for  the  vent-pipe 
at  the  top  as  well.     (See  Fig.  51.) 

All  traps  are  liable  to  lose  a  part  of 
the  water  which  they  hold  and  which  constitutes  the  water- 
seal.     This  danger  must  be  apprehended  even  with  the  most 


Fig,  51. 


SIPHONAGE    AND    LOSS    OF    WATER-SEAL  337 

perfect  mechanical  work  and  even  though  the  traps  have 
''  back-vent  pipes  "  or  other  devices  to  be  spoken  of  shortly, 
as  more  or  less  satisfactory  means  of  maintaining  the  water- 
seal  or  at  least  the  greater  part  of  it. 

Whenever  a  change  of  pressure  and  consequent  movement 
of  air  occurs  in  the  soil-pipe  with  which  a  trap  is  connected 
through  the  waste-pipe,  this  change  of  air-pressure  causes 
the  water-seal  to  be  either  pushed  back  or  drawn  out 
according  as  the  pressure  is  increased  or  diminished. 

A  constantly  recurring  condition  of  ordinary  usage  is 
given  when,  from  a  water-closet  or  other  fixture,  especially 
from  one  high  up  in  the  house,  a  considerable  body  of 
water  (together  with  paper  and  other  more  or  less  solid  mat- 
ters) enters  a  soil-pipe  that  is  not  open  at  the  top.  The 
downward  flow  of  such  a  mass  of  water  (and  the  somewhat 
solid  substances  with  it)  acts  as  a  "  plunger"  which  is  apt  to 
cause  a  momentary  and  partial  vacuum  in  various  parts  of 
the  drainage  system.  This  tends  to  suck  out  more  or  less 
water  from  water-seals  in  the  traps  of  branch  waste-pipes 
emptying  into  this  soil-pipe. 

Similarly,  in  a  long  and  steep  waste-pipe,  especially  if  it 
be  curved,  the  momentum  of  water  going  swiftly  down  the 
pipe  may  cause  so  much  water  to  be  drawn  out  of  the  trap 
back  of  it  that  not  enough  remains  there  to  form  a  seal 
against  the  backward  flow  of  air  through  the  trap  (unless 
proper  provision  against  this  be  made  as  will  shortly  be 
explained.) 

Traps  lose  their  water-seals  under  various  modifications 
of  these  conditions.  The  practically  important  fact  to  be 
remembered  is  that  in  "plumbing"  there  is  usually  a 
liability  of  the  water-seals  of  traps  to  be  drawn  out.  It  is 
accordingly  necessary  here  to  consider  the  means  employed 
to  prevent  this. 

A  vent  (in  the  shape  of  a  large  hole)  is  made  experi- 
mentally in  a  given  case,  let  it  be  assumed,  at  the  high- 
22 


338  HOUSE    DRAINAGE.       PLUMBING 

est  part  of  the  trap  (on  the  discharge  side  of  the  water-seal) 
or  a  little  further  along  down  the  pipe.  The  effect  of  in- 
troducing such  an  air-outlet  is  thereupon  seen  to  be  that 
the  air  can  rush  freely  in  or  out  through  that  ventilating 
opening  whenever  for  any  reason  the  pressure  of  the  air 
within  the  pipe  suddenly  diminishes  or  increases.  In  such 
a  case,  the  water-seal  in  the  trap  is  not  appreciably  affected 
by  the  variations  of  air-pressure  in  the  pipe,  and  hence 
cannot  thereby  lose  any  of  its  water. 

Such  an  expedient,  however,  as  is  indicated  in  the  above 
paragraph,  is  impracticable  (at  least  in  the  simple  form  there 
given)  because  the  air  from  the  waste-pipes  can  flow  out 
into  the  room  through  such  an  opening  in  the  pipe.  In  order 
to  prevent  this  objectionable  air  escaping  inside  the  house, 
while  yet  at  the  same  time  the  advantages  of  the  ventilation 
opening  were  retained,  the  custom  arose  many  years  ago  of 
securely  attaching  a  long,  continuous  pipe  to  the  hole  made 
on  the  top  of  the  trap. 

In  Fig.  52,  the  word  veiit  indicates  the  usual  location  of 
this  connection  between  the  trap 
and  such  a  ventilating  pipe.  This 
air-pipe  needs  to  be  two  inches 
large,  or  as  large  as  the  trap,  if  that 
be  smaller  than  two  inches.  Such 
a  trap  "  vent-pipe  "  can  be  made  to 
communicate  directly  with  the  air 
'  ^^'  upon  the  outer  wall  of  the  build- 

ing, and  a  few  intelligent  engineers  sanction  such  a  contriv- 
ance. But  any  makeshift  of  that  sort  is  not  to  be  commended. 
The  usual  method,  shown  in  Fig.  47,  is  very  much  better. 

Back  ventilation,  or  ''back  venting,"  is  the  name  given 
to  the  use  of  perfectly  tight  pipes  that  rise  from  each  trap 
for  the  purpose  of  allowing  the  air  of  the  waste-pipe  to  flow 
in  and  out  and  thus  be  the  means  of  preserving  the  water- 
seal.     In  all  properly  arranged  plumbing,  where  this  system 


BACK    VENTING 


339 


of  back  ventilation  is  carried  out,  the  several  ventilating 
pipes,  one  from  each  trap  in  the  house,  rise  gradually  to  enter 
a  larger  main  ventilating  pipe,  which  rises  vertically  through 
the  building  to  an  opening  above  the  roof.  (See  pipes  with 
dotted  outlines  in  Fig.  47.) 

Back-ventilating  pipes  necessarily  offer  much  frictional 
resistance  to  the  air  that  is  drawn  or  driven  through  them. 
It  is  essential,  therefore  :  (i)  That  these  pipes  be  not  ex- 
ceedingly long.  (2)  They  must  be  large  enough  (as  ex- 
plained later).  (3)  They  require  to  be  straight  or  to  have, 
at  any  rate,  only  very  few  and  very  gentle  curves.  Such 
pipes  as  conform  to  these  requirements  serve  to  prevent  the 
water-seals  of  the  traps  from  being  entirely  lost  under 
ordinary  conditions  of  varying  pressures  occurring  in  house- 
drainage  systems. 

If  all  the  rest  of  the  plumbing  be  good  and  kept  in  perfect 
order,  back  ventilation,  carried  out  in  the  most  intelligent 
and  conscientious  manner,  is  a  very  satisfactory  means  of 
protecting  the  water-seal  in  a  trap.  Some  work  is  at  times, 
however,  very  defectively  done.  There  are  details  which  an 
inferior  mechanic  is  liable  to  slight  or  wholly  neglect. 
All  plumbing  needs  also  to  be  inspected  occasionally  in 
order  to  insure  the  absence  of  obstructions  in  these  venti- 
lating pipes,  especially  where  they  join  the  traps.  Accord- 
ingly, this  method  cannot  be  regarded  as  reliable  unless  it 
is  well  planned,  carefully  executed  and  kept  in  good  order. 
Yet,  as  has  just  been  said,  it  is  excellent  -; 
when  at  its  best.  j 

A  ventilating  pipe  must  always  rise  con-  • 
stantly  from  the  crown  of  the  trap.  (See  ': 
Fig.  47.)  In  no  case  should  any  part  of  this  ; 
ventilating  pipe  sink  below  the  level  of  the  i 
fixture  which   it  serves.      If   this   rule   be  ^^g.  53- 

violated  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  53,  the  fault 
is  a  grave  one.     This  is  of  altogether  too  frequent  occur- 


340  HOUSE    DRAINAGE.       PLUMBING 

rence,  particularly  in  connection  with  pantry  sinks  and  others 
that  are  isolated  because  of  the  necessities  of  the  con- 
struction. Such  a  defect  can  wholly  defeat  the  purpose 
of  the  ventilating  pipe,  because  it  renders  that  dry-air  pipe 
liable  to  become  filled  with  filth  from  the  overflow  in  case 
of  any  stoppage  of  the  waste-pipe. 

Ventilating  pipes,  according  to  most  practical  men,  also 
tend  to  become  stopped  up  by  substances  falling  into  them. 
When  iron  that  is  not  galvanized  is  used  for  such  pipes,  it 
is  apt  to  rust  and  cause  at  least  partial  obstruction  of  the  pipe. 
Stoppage  also  occurs  because  of  filth  being  dashed  up  into 
the  vent-pipes  and  there  drying  so  as  to  form  an  obstruction. 
This  happens  especially  at  their  origins, — that  is,  at  the 
places  where  these  pipes  (see  vent^  Fig.  52)  begin  to  rise  from 
the  trap.  Most  ventilating  pipes  probably  allow  somewhat 
less  free  passage  of  air  than  they  are  supposed  to. 

The  waste-pipes  are  dryest  within  when  back  ventilation 
is  carried  out  in  the  best  manner.  More  air  flows  through 
them  when  they  are  ventilated,  and  more  oxidation  of  the 
filth  upon  the  inside  of  the  pipe  then  takes  place.  This 
drying  is  not  found  necessary  when  abundant  water  is  made  to 
flow  through  a  pipe  so  as  to  keep  it  perfectly  clean.  Under 
ordinary  conditions,  however,  people  do  not  flush  the  pipes 
sufficiently.  Then  the  dryness  and  circulation  of  air  within 
the  pipes  may  be  considered  an  advantage  for  the  reason 
just  given. 

Interior  dryness,  however,  becomes  a  defect  when  the 
pipes  are  left  long  unused  ;  for  it  is  considered  that  the 
water-seal  of  a  ventilated  trap  dries  out  at  least  three  or 
four  times  as  quickly  as  when  there  is  no  ventilation.  This 
evaporation  of  water  from  a  trap  is  highly  objectionable 
since  it  may  cause  the  water-seal  of  the  trap  to  be  lost. 
Then  it  permits  bad  air  and  germs  to  come  out  of  the 
waste-pipe  and  into  the  apartment. 

All  houses  that  have  long  been  unoccupied  require  that 


BACK    VENTING  341 

their  pipes  be  well  flushed.  The  rooms  and  the  entire  inside 
of  the  building  must  be  thoroughly  aired  before  being  occu- 
pied again.  If  there  exist  a  slight  leakage  of  water  from  a 
faucet,  this  will  keep  sufficient  water  in  any  traps  below  it ; 
yet  it  is  a  wasteful  means. 

There  are  "  safety  traps  "  made  which,  by  means  of  a 
"  turn  valve,"  obviate  or  lessen  this  evaporation,  because 
they  shut  tightly.  They  can  prevent  any  backward  flow  of 
air  from  either  the  waste-pipe  or  ventilating  pipe,  whether 
there  be  any  water  present  in  the  trap  or  not.  They  must 
be  from  the  best  makers  if  used  at  all,  and  are  not  to  be 
recommended  for  ordinary  cases.  As  they  entirely  close  the 
pipe,  a  leaky  faucet  of  the  basin  above  (if  not  provided  with 
special  stops)  may  cause  overflows  when  such  traps  are  used. 
At  the  best,  they  call  for  an  effort  of  the  memory  to  see  that 
they  are  properly  turned  off  or  on  as  the  situation  calls  for. 

If  the  connection  of  the  back-ventilating  pipe  with  a  trap 
be  by  a  screw-joint  coupling  as  already  mentioned  (see  Fig. 
51),  made  air-tight,  this  joint  can  then  be  opened  from  time 
to  time  and  inspected  and  cleaned  more  effectually  than 
when  attached  by  soldered  joints  in  the  usual  manner.  If 
traps  or  pipes  used  for  plumbing  fixtures  could  be  durably 
made  of  glass  and  kept  clean,  that  would  afford  a  valuable 
safeguard,  since  it  could  permit  the  recognition  of  stoppages 
and  defects  in  working.  Practically,  no  extensive  use  of 
such  an  aid  is  found  to  be  feasible. 

Back  ventilation  is,  as  has  above  been  indicated,  the  most 
approved  expedient  for  preventing  the  loss  of  water-seals 
from  traps.  Yet  there  is  always  a  chance  that  the  work  may 
be  poorly  planned  or  badly  done.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  when  much  is  entrusted  to  unreliable  workmen  and 
when  the  simplest  principles  are  deviated  from.  Intricacy, 
as  illustrated  by  some  very  pretentious  work,  is  often  danger- 
ous. Every  extra  joint  involves  additional  chance  for 
insecurity. 


342  HOUSE    DRAINAGE.       PLUMBING 

Recognizing  these  possibilities  and  with  a  view  also  of 
lessening  somewhat  the  considerable  expense  of  back  venti- 
lating, numerous  inventors  have  brought  out  various  more  or 
less  complicated  traps  and  other  patented  devices  to  take 
the  place  of  that.  These  all  have  the  attractive  merit  of  re- 
ducing the  cost  of  plumbing  work,  while  all  back  ventilat- 
ing (as  above  outlined)  considerably  increases  the  expense, 
since  it  calls  for  more  piping  and  more  work. 

On  trial,  most  of  these  work  very  well  and  ordinarily  pre- 
serve the  water-seal  until  their  more  or  less  complicated 
mechanism  gets  clogged  with  the  usual  filth  or  becomes  ob- 
structed by  something  else  that  chances  to  enter.  If  these 
are  used  without  back  ventilation,  the  waste-pipes  are  apt 
to  be  more  slimy  within  than  when  perfectly  working  back 
ventilation  exists.  This  tendency  is  lessened  when  the 
pipes  are  flushed  often  and  with  sufficient  water  to  cleanse 
out  all  filth.  If  copious  flushing  be  neglected,  dry  pipes  are 
much  to  be  preferred  for  the  reason  that,  as  above  stated, 
there  is  less  likelihood  of  decomposition  of  matters  there. 

There  are  many  of  these  traps.  Fig.  54  illustrates  the 
flow  of  water  through  one  of  the  best  of  them, — the 
Putnam  trap.  It  is  a  considerable  departure 
from  the  simple  S-trap  ;  yet,  in  special  tests, 
even  when  not  ventilated,  it  appears  to  keep 
its  water-seal  better  than  the  ordinary  S-trap 
does,  although  that  be  provided  with  the 
average  back  ventilation.  If,  however,  such  a 
trap  is  allowed  to  become  clogged  with  filth,  it  has  no  ad- 
vantage over  the  common  S-trap.  Whenever  any  of  these 
''  non-siphoning  traps  "  is  employed,  it  is  well  to  choose  one 
of  the  simplest.  They  all  have  the  defect  of  an  uneven 
calibre  and  irregular  surface  in  parts. 

An  ingenious  device  that  allows  the  use  of  a  simple  S-trap, 
and  yet  preserves  the  water-seal  under  ordinary  conditions 
without  employing  any  other  back  ventilation,  is  the  ''  Mc- 


SUBSTITUTES    FOR    BACK    VENTING 


343 


Clellan  vent."  This  consists  of  a  light  (aluminum)  inverted 
cup  {B,  Fig.  55)  the  lips  of  which  rest 
in  mercury  (Z,  Fig.  55),  unless,  as  rep- 
resented in  the  figure,  air  is  being 
drawn  into  the  waste-pipe  below  the 
trap.  When  there  is  no  pressure  in 
either  direction,  and  also  when  the 
air  for  any  reason  is  pressed  backward 

and  upward  out  of  the  waste-pipe,  the  cup  {B)  rests  closely 
in  the  mercury  seal  (Z). 

As  this  vent  then  forms  a  tight  closure,  no  air  can  flow 
backward  in  a  direction  contrary  to  that  of  the  arrows  in 
Fig.  55.  In  this  backward  direction,  strong  currents  of  air 
are  not  much  to  be  apprehended.  Violent  back  currents  of 
waste-pipe  air  occur  only  in  wholly  exceptional  cases  of 
defective  house-drainage.  They  may  be  expected  in  case 
of  the  accidental  stopping  up  of  the  lower  part  of  a  soil- 
pipe.  In  that  event,  the  non-yielding  of  such  vents  would 
tend  to  cause  a  desirable  warning  to  be  given  by  the  back- 
ward gush  (into  or  toward  the  sink)  of  the  contents  of  the 
trap  ;  for,  unlike  back  ventilation,  this  device  and  the  vari- 
ous "  non-siphoning  traps "  do  not  provide  for  such  back- 
ward flow  of  air. 
Under  the  ordinary  conditions,  where  air  is  sucked  out  of 
the  waste-pipe,  this  "  vent  " — connecting  as 
it  does  with  the  crown  of  the  trap  (see 
Fig,  56)  by  a  short  pipe — allows  the  en- 
trance of  air.  The  only  resistance  is  that 
which  is  offered  by  the  light  aluminum 
cup.  That  resistance  is  considerably  less 
than  is  afforded  by  the  water-seal  of  the 
trap.  Consequently  this  device  enables 
the  water-seal  to  remain  unbroken  under  ordinary  conditions 
of  usage.  The  vent  must  be  above  the  level  of  the  fixtures 
which  it  serves. 


Fig.  56. 


344 


HOUSE    DRAINAGE.       PLUMBING 


With  fixtures,  then,  not  far  from  a  soil-pipe,  this  "  vent  " 
(like  the  best  of  the  various  "  combination  "  or  non-siphoning 
traps  above  spoken  of)  allows  the  desired  water-seal  to  remain 
practically  undisturbed.  These  accordingly  fulfil  the  desired 
object  (of  maintaining  a  water-seal  in  the  fixture  trap)  better 
than  defective  back  ventilation.  Yet  when  the  back  ventilation 
is  perfect  in  all  of  the  essentials  indicated  in  these  pages,  it  is 
generally  considered  preferable  to  these  devices.  It  does  not 
maintain  the  water-seal  any  better,  the  plumbing  below  being 
rlear  and  perfect  in  both  cases.  Yet,  as  already  explained, 
it  allows  more  free  passage  of  air  upward  as  well  as  down- 
ward through  the  waste-pipes.  That  is  usually  an  advantage. 
Ventilating  pipes,  as  used  ordinarily  in  good  "  plumb- 
ing," must  be  as  large  as  the  pipe  that  forms  the  trap,  unless 
the  size  of  the  trap  exceed  two  inches.  The  size  of  venti- 
lating pipes  requires  to  be  gradually  enlarged  as  the  distance 
from  the  trap  increases.  The  large  pipe  either  rises  inde- 
pendently through  the  roof  (see  Fig.  47),  or  it  may  open  into 
the  upper  part  of  the  soil-pipe  above  all  fixtures.  All  of 
these  pipes  are  to  be  as  short  as  possible,  and  should  have 
only  gentle  curves  if  any. 

Sharp  bends  (as  shown  by  Fig.  57)  are  to  be  avoided. 
Every  bend  or  obstruction  increases  the  frictional  resist- 
ance to  free  movement  of  air,  and  thereby  tends  to 
defeat  the  purpose  of  the  device.  Hence  many  pre- 
fer that  all  of  these  rising  pipes  be  left  open  on 
the  top  (above  the  roof)  and  not  even  curved  over 
Fig.  57.  to  keep  rain,  snow,  leaves  and  other  things  from 
entering.  A  very  light  open  wire  basket  may  be  used  over 
the  top  to  keep  out  animals,  leaves,  etc.  Ice-guards  are 
usually  complex  and  a  hindrance  to  the  free  movement  of 
air.  Galvanized  iron  is  preferable  to  ordinary  iron  piping 
for  "  vent-pipe  "  risers.  In  no  case  should  the  openings 
of  soil-pipes  or  ventilating  pipes  be  near  a  window,  ven- 
tilating flue  or  chimney. 


SIMPLICITY    AND    GOOD    WORK    ESSENTIAL  345 

In  Fig.  47,  the  various  fixtures  are  represented  as  being 
quite  near  to  the  soil-pipe.  That  is  the  best  way  to  have 
them  arranged.  Unh!ke  the  Engh'sh  usage,  it  is  in  our 
country  as  a  rule  preferred  to  have  the  waste-pipes,  from 
sink,  water-closets  and  tubs,  empty  as  directly  as  possible 
into  the  soil-pipe.  Rather  than  have  long  horizontal  waste- 
pipes,  it  is  better  to  have  separate  vertical  ones  where 
plumbing  fixtures  are  situated  in  a  somewhat  distant  part  of 
a  house.  That  is,  it  is  better  to  duplicate  the  simple  system 
shown  in  Fig.  47  rather  than  to  have  a  number  of  long 
pipes  nearly  level  run  between  the  floors  to  empty  into  a 
remote  soil-pipe. 

All  pipes  ought  to  be  put  in  place  in  such  a  way  that  they 
are  exposed  to  view  as  much  as  possible.  Whenever  they 
are  covered  in,  as  under  a  floor  or  elsewhere,  they  should 
have  especially  arranged  and  easily  removable  boards  as 
flooring  or  wood-casing  over  the  place  where  they  run. 

As  a  luxurious  safeguard  against  leakage,  little  water- 
tight troughs  may  be  under  waste-pipes  and  plumbing  fix- 
tures. These  catch-troughs  have  independent  pipes  carrying 
off  leakage  water  to  the  basement.  Yet  they  ought  not  to 
be  needed.  Such  things  add  greatly  to  the  cost,  and  they 
fail  to  give  the  hygienic  security  that  comes  with  simple, 
uncovered  plumbing  limited  to  the  absolute  needs  of  the 
occupants. 

Complexity  of  detail  and  bad  joints  in  plumbing  are 
productive  of  much  disease  in  our  houses.  Through  de- 
fective joints,  harmful  filth  can  escape.  With  complexity, 
more  opportunity  for  errors  and  for  mechanical  defects  is 
introduced. 

Even  though  in  the  beginning  the  pipes  appear  accept- 
ably well  put  in,  and  stand  the  usual  test  pressure  of  ten 
pounds  to  the  square  inch  with  only  a  very  slight  leakage 
or  even  none  at  all,  the  quality  of  the  material  may  be 
quite   imperfect.      The  custom   of   doing   much   elaborate 


34^  HOUSE    DRAINAGE.       PLUMBING 

plumbing  by  contract,  the  lowest  bidder  being  usually  the 
successful  one,  causes  work  to  be  slighted.  Too  often, 
defective  material  is  used  which,  although  seemingly  cor- 
responding to  the  precise  and  adequate  specifications,  is  yet 
liable  to  give  very  early  and  unhealthful  evidence  of  its 
inferiority. 

Soil-pipes  rarely  need  to  have  an  inside  diameter  ex- 
ceeding four  inches.  This  diameter  should  never  be  greater 
than  six  inches.  It  is  desirable  that  the  inside  surface  be 
perfectly  smooth  throughout.  So  also  must  the  inside  of 
all  the  waste-pipes  emptying  into  them.  These  latter,  which 
serve  to  empty  the  watery  contents  of  sinks,  tubs,  etc.,  into 
the  main  soil-pipe,  ought  never  to  exceed  a  diameter  of  two 
inches  inside  (except  when  from  water-closets  or  special 
apparatus).  An  inch-and-a-half  size  is  preferable  for  most 
fixtures.  It  will  suffice  for  an  ordinary  wash-stand  sink. 
The  trap  and  all  other  parts  between  a  given  sink  (or  other 
fixture)  and  the  soil-pipe  must  be  of  the  same  unvarying 
size  throughout.  These  essential  requisites  to  good  house 
drainage  are  emphasized  because  of  the  extreme  importance 
of  attending  to  them.  If  properly  adjusted,  the  pipes  will 
constantly  be  kept  clean  in  all  parts  by  the  flushing  force  of 
the  water  that  flows  freely  through,  and  thus  will  allow  no 
chance  for  filth  to  accumulate. 

"  Extra  heavy  "  pipe  ought  to  be  required  in  all  speci- 
fications for  good  plumbing,  especially  when  cast-iron  is  to 
be  used.  This  material,  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  thickness, 
seems,  in  the  long  run,  to  be  about  as  good  as  any  other. 
The  lengths  of  such  pipe  are  usually  not  much  more  than 
five  feet  from  joint  to  joint.  At  curves  and  branches  the 
joints  are  necessarily  much  nearer.  When  these  joints 
are  imperfect,  they  afford  great  opportunity  for  filth  to 
lodge  to  a  dangerous  extent  and  make  its  way  out  (through 
such  faults)  into  the  air  of  apartments. 

The  most  intelligent  and  experienced  observers  are  dis- 


SOIL    PIPES.       JOINTS  347 

posed  to  regard  that  the  germs  of  diphtheria  and  various 
other  infectious  diseases  frequently  get  into  rooms  by  having 
passed  out  of  the  house  drains  through  these  plumbing  de- 
fects, and  thus  cause  many  cases  of  disease.  Even  such 
gross  faults  as  are  indicated  in  Fig.  45  are  far  from  being 
of  the  worst  that  are  encountered  among  very  many  cases  of 
bad  plumbing. 

Not  only  these,  but  also  slight  defects  in  the  oakum-and- 
hammered-lead  joints,  that  have  to  be  used  for  connecting 
these  cast-iron  pipes,  may  allow  disease  germs  to  get  out 
from  the  pipes.  Hence  the  importance  of  having  no  more 
pipes  and  plumbing  fixtures  in  a  house  than  are  actually 
needed.  Hence,  too,  the  necessity  of  having  the  materials 
and  workmanship  of  the  very  best  and  always  kept  in  order. 

All  of  these  require,  as  already  mentioned,  to  be  so  placed 
that  they  are  always  visible  and  not  cased  in  with  wood- 
work. White  paint,  having  much  white  lead  in  it,  ought  to 
be  applied  over  all  of  these  joints  as,  in  case  of  leakage, 
sulphur  gases  escaping  with  other  products  of  decomposi- 
tion, would  tend  to  darken  the  white  lead  and  thus  betray 
the  leak  to  any  careful  observer. 

Glazed  earthenware  pipes  do  not  corrode  ;  but  they  are 
not  to  be  recommended  for  use  within  doors,  because  of 
their  great  liability  to  breakage.  Cast-iron  pipes,  even, 
sometimes  suffer  injury  from  the  necessary  hammering  in 
of  the  several  pounds  of  lead  used  to  make  the  joint. 
These  flaws  are  not  always  noticed,  and  may  later  increase 
in  size  and  become  dangerous  passages  that  allow  filth  to 
exude.  Furthermore,  joints  made  in  this  way  tend  to  leak 
when  deteriorated  by  the  expansive  and  contractive  in- 
fluence of  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  Hence  soil-pipes  of 
wrought-iron  or  other  metal  are  more  and  more  being  in- 
troduced with  screw  joints  as  used  in  steam-piping.  Joints 
of  this  kind  can  be  made  very  tight,  and  therefore  seem 
preferable  to  the  ordinary  (hammered  lead)  joint. 


34^  HOUSE    DRAINAGE.       PLUMBING 

Brass  is  very  rarely  used  for  soil-pipes.  It  does  not 
seem  durable  for  such  purposes.  Criticism  is  also  made 
upon  the  durability  of  galvanized-iron  soil-pipes,  such  as 
are  called  for  by  the  very  thorough  (1893)  plumbing  regu- 
lations of  the  District  of  Columbia.  Practically,  these  two 
metals  have  not  been  used  sufficiently  to  determine  their 
fitness  for  soil-pipes.  They  are,  however,  excellent  for 
back-ventilation  pipes.  So,  too,  is  lead.  It  is  very  dura- 
ble if  kept  dry.  Gnawing  by  rats  is  not  to  be  feared  with 
dry  and  exposed  pipes. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  cutting  of  threads  for 
screw  joints  takes  away  a  considerable  portion  of  the  mate- 
rial. Hence  the  metal  must  be  sufficiently  thick  to  permit 
without  danger  this  loss  of  substance.  Some  recent  con- 
tract plumbing  work,  that  is  very  elaborate  and  very  costly, 
appears  to  be  sadly  remiss  in  this  respect. 

Soil-pipes  must  not  be  level  in  any  place.  They 
must  always  have  a  distinct  downward  slope,  say  of  at  least 
I  in  48.  The  regulations,  above  alluded  to,  require  a  slope  of 
I  in  40.  Then,  with  the  use  of  abundant  water  for  flush- 
ing them  out,  nothing  will  remain  lodged  in  these  pipes 
if  unsuitable  substances  are  kept  out.  They  ought  to  be 
visible  and  painted  white  in  the  basement  as  well  as  in  all 
other  parts  of  a  building. 

It  is  preferable  that  no  water-closet  or  other  plumbing 
fixtures  be  in  the  basement.  If  as  is  usual  such  fixtures 
be  located  there,  they  must  in  every  case  be  so  situated 
that  their  outflow  is  distinctly  downward  toward  a  soil-pipe 
which  flows  directly  into  a  sewer.  In  no  case  should  they 
be  allowed  to  remain  if  they  necessitate  the  presence  of  a 
cesspool. 

It  is  well  that,  near  the  lower  part  of  a  vertical  soil-pipe, 
a  readily  accessible  brass  trap-screw  exist  in  order  to  facili- 
tate cleaning  out  of  the  main  drainage  pipes  of  the  building. 
There  should  also  be   such  a  screw  for  cleaning  purposes 


COMPARISON    OF    WATER-CLOSETS 


349 


on  the  further  side  of  the  trap  at  the  wall  of  the  house. 
(See  Fig.  47.)     Some  traps  have  these  on  both  sides. 

Water-closets,  when  properly  made,  of  suitable  form 
and  perfectly  connected  with  the  soil-pipe,  are  no  more 
unhealthful  or  objectionable  than  any  other  plumbing  fix- 
tures. The  average  bedroom  sinks  and  kitchen  sinks  are 
presumably  more  often  instrumental  in  propagating  and 
disseminating  infection  than  any  really  good  water-closet. 

The  worst  water-closets  in  common  use 
dst pan  closets.     (See  Fig.  58.) 

This  inferiority  is  chiefly  due  to  the  fact 
that  they  have  a  wide  enlargement  around 
and  beneath  the  *'pan."  When  the  con- 
tents of  the  pan  are  splashed  down,  as  they 
have  to  be  in  order  to  empty  the  closet 
after  use,  part  of  this  filth  may  be  thrown  ^'^-  sS- 

upon  the  walls  of  this  very  undesirable  space  and  remain 
there.  The  low  price  of  such  closets  explains  their  extensive 
use.  By  paying  five  dollars  more  than  the  cost  of  this,  a 
hygienically  correct  hopper  or  washout  style  of  water-closet 
can  be  bought,  even  though  it  be  not  of  the  highest  quality 
of  material  and  wholly  lacking  in  superfluous  elegancies. 

Hopper  closets  are  much  better  than  pan  closets.  Being 
both  inexpensive  and  strong,  owing  to  the  customary  exclu- 
sive use  of  iron  for  their  construction, 
they  are  often  employed  for  institutions 
and  public  places.  In  Fig.  59,  the  hop- 
per is  the  funnel-shaped  part  above  the 
trap  and  its  visible  water-seal.  Those 
water-closets  are  best  where  both  trap 
and  hopper  are  in  one  continuous  piece 
without  any  joint  between,  and  where  the 
sides  are  flushed  clean  by  jets  of  water  coming  from  all 
around  the  rim  at  the  upper  part.  It  is  best  also  to  have  the 
trap  above  the  floor,  but  this  is  not  usually  possible  with  very 


Fig.  59. 


350  HOUSE    DRAINAGE.       PLUMBING 

long  hoppers.  The  particular  closet,  represented  by  Fig.  59, 
is  of  the  long  hopper  variety.  It  is  without  back  ventilation. 
When  the  hopper  is  short,  so  that  the  trap  is  above  the 
floor,  the  result  is  a  more  satisfactory  kind  called  a  short 
hopper  water-closet.  If,  in  such  a  pattern,  the  rim  be  pro- 
vided with  a  flushing  arrangement  through  which  several 
gallons  of  water  flow  whenever  the  closet  is  used,  this  bowl 
can  be  kept  clean.  In  public  places  it  is  found  well  to  have 
an  automatic  arrangement  for  effecting  this  regular  and 
thorough  flushing.  Such  a  device  must  be  certain  in  its 
action.  In  any  case,  extra  cleansing,  as  by  a  brush,  is 
occasionally  needed  for  this  or  any  other  water-closet. 
Even  the  average  hydrant  water  leaves  a  certain  amount  of 
sediment  on  the  walls  of  any  bowl. 

The  "plunger"  and  "valve"  water-closets  are  not  to  be 
recommended  ;  and,  as  they  are  not  often  introduced  into 
new  work  here  and  comparatively  seldom  found  at  all,  they 
are  mentioned  simply  to  state  that  these  have  some  of  the 
objectionable  points  of  the  pan  closet  and  are  inferior  to  the 
hopper  closets  or  those  next  to  be  described. 

Siphon  and  particularly  the  siphon-jet  "water-closets 
(see  Fig.  60),  when  of  the  best 
makes,  are  to  be  considered  as 
equal  to  the  best  "  washout  "  pat- 
terns. Many  consider  them  much 
better  than  any  washout  closets. 
All  of  these  are  good  when  simple 
and  when  offering  no  recesses  or 
roughnesses  that  allow  matters  to 
lodge  or  cling.  They  are  made  so  as  to  form  a  solid  piece 
of  glazed  earthenware,  in  which  the  trap  is  enclosed.  In 
practice,  they  are  found  to  work  better  when  the  outflow 
pipe  is  contracted  or  bent  at  or  below  the  place  where  the 
arrow  is  in  Fig.  60. 

Siphon  water-closets  may  be  considered  as  improved  hop- 


SIPHON    CLOSETS.       WASHOUT    CLOSETS 


351 


per  closets  having  a  deep  trap  above  the  floor  and  a  bowl 
that  is  shorter  and  of  a  better  form  than  in  the  ordinary- 
hopper  closet.  In  this  bowl  is  a  considerable  amount  of 
water  which  makes  a  water-seal  so  deep  and  lasting  that  no 
second  trap  is  needed.  Especially  to  be  guarded  against  is 
the  presence  of  roughnesses  and  unflushed  recesses  on  the 
inside  surfaces  of  the  siphon  back  of  the  bowl.  Some  closets 
of  this  pattern  make  very  little  noise  when  used.  That  is  a 
minor  consideration.  Intricacy  and  elaborations  are  in  gen- 
eral to  be  avoided.  The  most  costly  water-closets  are  not 
necessarily  the  best. 

Washout  water-closets,  when  allowed  several  gallons 
of   water   at  each    using,   and    when  * 

thoroughly  flushing  all  parts  of  the 
bowl  with  this  water,  deserve  to  be 
classed  among  the  very  best  of  all. 
Those  which  have  the  outlet  to  the 
rear  of  and  under  the  seat  (see  Fig. 
61)  are  not  quite  so  good  as  those 
which  have  the  outlet  toward  the 
front  (as  shown  by  Figs.  62  and  63). 

The  hygienically  preferable  form  of  these  is  indicated  by 
Fig.  62.     The  superiority  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  water-seal 

within  the  trap  is 

wholly  visible,  and 

that  all  parts  above 

the  seal  are  open 

to  easy  inspection. 

Thus  the  retention 

of  any   filth  is   at 

.       J  Fig.  63. 

once    recognized 
and  the  bowl  and  outlet  tube  are  kept  clean.     Some  find 
that,  when  the  bowl  is  deep^  there  may  be  some  splashing  of 
the  water  on  the  front  part. 

Accordingly,   a  bulging    front   is    introduced    into    some 


Fig.  61. 


"^m^ 


Fig.  62. 


352  HOUSE    DRAINAGE.       PLUMBING 

closets  of  the  front-washout  pattern.  This  is  shown  by  Fig. 
6;^.  Comparing  that  with  Fig.  62,  the  difference  is  evident. 
While  a  slight  projection  is  permissible,  the  one  shown  in 
Fig.  6^  is  too  great. 

Such  a  protrusion  is  in  the  way  of  those  who  use  the 
bowl.  The  hygienic  criticism  to  be  made  upon  that  shape 
is  that  it  may  allow  unclean  substances  to  remain,  and  does 
not  permit  the  recognition  of  any  retained  filth  so  readily  as 
does  the  better  shape,  shown  in  Fig.  62.  Besides  being 
hygienically  good,  a  washout  closet  can  be  purchased  at  a 
very  much  lower  price  than  any  good  siphon  closet.  This 
is  a  point  of  great  importance  to  most  people. 

Whichever  of  these  better  varieties  be  selected,  sufficiejit 
mate?"-  must  be  used  for  flushing  from  the  rim  and  washing 
out  all  parts  of  the  bowl.  The  supply  must  never  come 
from  direct  communication  with  the  water  supply  of  the 
house.  It  must  always  be  from  a  tank  especially  intro- 
duced and  arranged  for  water-closet  use  and  for  no  other 
purpose. 

It  is  usual  to  have  this  tank  about  seven  feet  above  the 
floor  so  as  to  insure  sufficient  head  of  water  for  flushing  the 
bowl  and  washing  out  everything.  Several  ingenious  con- 
trivances provide  for  a  secondary  flushing.  A  continuous 
flow,  of  which  the  first  portion  is  brisk  enough  to  wash  out 
everything  from  the  bowl,  answers  equally  well. 

The  important  thing  to  provide  in  any  case  is  plenty  of 
water^  and  that  must  come  promptly  and  with  certainty 
when  needed.  Three  gallons  ought  to  be  allowed  for  each 
using.  In  Philadelphia,  more  than  twice  this  amount  is 
called  for.  That  extra  consumption  of  water  is  of  hygienic 
advantage  ;  for  the  more  water  a  water-closet  and  the  pipes 
below  it  in  its  drainage  system  receive,  the  better  are  they 
cleaned  out. 

A   ventilating   pipe   (or  its   substitute)   should    be   con- 
nected with  the  trap  beneath  the  bowl  of  a  water-closet  (at 


BOWL    VENTS    UNNECESSARY  353 

the  place  indicated  by  the  word  vent  in  Figs.  6i,  62,  63)  in 
order  that  the  trap  shall  not  siphon  out.  Yet,  as  above 
said,  the  best  siphon  closets  (see  Fig.  60)  do  not  usually 
need  this.  The  size  of  this  ventilating  pipe  must  in  no  case 
be  less  than  two  inches. 

It  is  becoming  more  common  than  formerly  to  introduce 
"  local  "  ventilating  pipes  upon  the  water-closet  bowls  (above 
the  water-seal)  in  order  to  draw  off  the  odor  that  comes 
from  the  excrement  when  the  fixture  is  being  used.  (See 
the  words  "  bowl  vent "  below  the  seat  in  Fig.  d^^^  It  is 
eminently  desirable  that  rooms  which  contain  water-closets 
be  ventilated  by  exhaust  shafts,  especially  if  proper  venti- 
lating windows  are  absent.  Yet  it  can  hardly  be  recom- 
mended that  these  ventilating  pipes  originate  at  water-closet 
seats. 

It  seems  better  to  have  their  openings  begin  further  away, 
where  (if  efficient)  they  would  purify  the  air  and  yet  not 
rapidly  dry  up  matters  that  -may  be  allowed  to  remain  upon 
seats  owing  to  neglect  of  the  first  essentials  of  cleanliness. 
To  be  of  value,  the  principle  of  bowl  ventilation  must  be 
carried  out  very  perfectly,  with  large,  straight,  independent 
"  risers."  That  adds  to  the  expense  and  increases  the  com- 
plexity. As  a  rule,  bowl  ventilating  is  badly  done.  So,  it 
seems  quite  improper  to  compel  all  people  to  introduce 
"  bowl  vents,"  as  some  boards  of  health  appear  to  require. 
These  bowl  vents  are  to  be  regarded  as  a  luxury.  Those 
who  can  afford  to  have  such  work  done  in  a  proper  manner 
will  probably  attend  also  to  the  requisite  cleanliness.  If 
not  maintained  in  good  working  order,  seat  ventilation  is 
undesirable. 

Enough  has  been  said  elsewhere  in  this  book  about  the 
hygienic  significance  of  disagreeable  smells.  However  un- 
pleasant they  may  be,  it  must  be  said  that  all  odors  that  are 
produced  in  a  water-closet  are  hygienically  insignificant 
compared  with  the  danger  from  dirt  and  dust  that  result 
23 


354  HOUSE    DRAINAGE.       PLUMBING 

from  the  drying  of  disease  discharges.  While  it  is  very  de- 
sirable that  we  prevent  offensive  odors  from  annoying  our 
senses,  that  must  be  effected  in  a  way  which  cannot  create  a 
positive  danger.  It  deserves  to  be  emphasized  that  a  sink 
or  wash-basin  is  usually  a  more  dangerous  fixture  than  a 
good  water-closet  that  is  kept  clean. 

In  the  presence  of  cases  of  cholera,  typhoid  or  other 
intestinal  disorder,  it  is  exceedingly  important  that  the 
discharges,  especially  if  not  disinfected,  be  washed  down 
the  water-closet  very  promptly  and  with  liberal  use  of 
water.  They  must  be  kept  ??ioist  until  after  they  are  washed 
away.  A  "  local  vent  "  tends  to  dry  (and  convert  into  dust) 
such  discharges  as  may  cling  to  the  seat  or  upper  part  of 
the  bowl.  The  upward  current  (if  the  device  be  actually 
efficient)  can  cause  the  germs  of  disease  to  be  drawn  up 
the  ventilating  pipe  or  flue.  When  they  have  entered,  they 
are  not  necessarily  carried  off,  but  may  linger  within  the 
pipe  and  be  returned  to  the  house  air  by  back  currents 
through  the  usual  ill-adapted  and  neglected  flues. 

Water-closet  bowls,  the  tanks  used  with  them  and  also 
sinks  or  other  fixtures  ought  to  be  without  wood-casings. 
They  must  have  all  external  parts  quite  open  to  inspection 
and  to  the  healthful  influence  of  light  and  fresh  air.  Covers 
of  any  kind  are  undesirable.  It  is  better  that  the  water- 
closet  bowl  be  opposite  or  very  near  a  window  rather  than 
in  a  dark  location. 

A  window  communicating  directly  with  the  open  air  is 
required  in  every  room  that  contains  a  water-closet.  If 
such  natural  ventilation  be  lacking,  an  independent  venti- 
lating flue,  having  a  sectional  area  of  more  than  forty  inches, 
ought  to  be  provided  on  the  wall.  (See  chapter  on  Venti- 
lation.) Through  that,  by  means  of  a  large  lamp  or  a  gas- 
burner  that  uses  at  least  four  feet  of  gas  every  hour,  an 
upward  draught  can  be  produced  to  draw  offensive  odors 
out  of  the  room.     Such  ventilating  flues  are  less  efficient 


WATER-CLOSETS.       SLOP-SINKS  355 

than  windows.  This  is  partly  because  of  the  usual  bad 
arrangement  and  partly  owing  to  neglect.  Constant  warmth 
is  required  in  order  to  maintain  the  upward  current.  If 
back  currents  are  permitted,  such  flues  are  hygienically 
worse  than  useless. 

In  no  case  ought  draughts  of  air  to  flow  out  of  the  water- 
closet  room  into  other  parts  of  the  house  even  if  the  door 
be  left  open.  The  arrangement  and  management  of  the 
ventilating  facilities  should  be  such  that  currents  of  air  in- 
variably flow  in  the  opposite  direction,  that  is,  out  of  the 
house  through  the  water-closet  room.  If  cigar  smoke,  or 
any  odor  produced  in  the  room,  be  recognized  in  any  neigh- 
boring part  of  the  house,  it  is  proper  to  infer  that  at  least 
the  ventilation  needs  to  be  improved. 

In  an  elaborately  arranged  house,  as  also  in  hotels  and 
institutions,  the  water-closets  may  be  in  special  and  separate 
rooms.  Yet,  in  average  houses  the  ventilation  is,  as  a  rule, 
more  satisfactory  when  a  single  room  contains  all  the  usual 
necessary  fixtures  (including  a  water-closet)  in  addition  to 
the  bath-tub. 

In  a  small  house,  the  water-closet  bowl  serves  quite  well 
as  a  slop-sink  although  allowing  matches  and  coarser  articles 
to  enter  the  soil-pipe  and  possibly  cause  obstructions.  That 
is  the  only  hygienic  objection  to  be  offered  against  such  an 
arrangement.  The  advantages  of  simplicity  (and  of  the 
avoidance  of  any  more  fixtures  than  are  actually  needed) 
are  so  great,  that  a  slop-sink  is  to  be  omitted  if  not  espe- 
cially desired. 

Slop-sinks  ought  to  be  readily  cleanable  and  have  their 
rims  provided  with  flushing  arrangements.  They  should 
receive  water  from  separate  cisterns.  On  sinks,  as  on  water- 
closets,  covers  are  not  an  aid  to  health.  Such  things  ought 
to  be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  If  dirt  be  present,  it  must 
not  be  covered  up.  If  odors  exist,  the  cause  should  be 
sought  out  and  removed. 


356 


HOUSE    DRAINAGE.       PLUMBING 


The  fewer  special  urinals  that  are  introduced  beyond  what 
are  absolutely  needed,  the  better.  It  is  not  well  to  use  ice 
in  these,  nor  should  reliance  be  put  upon  camphor  or  any 
strongly  smelling  substance.  Water  must  be  used  freely 
with  these  fixtures.     Nothing  can  supply  its  place. 

W"ash-bo^vls,  called  *' lavatories "  by  the  plumbing 
trade,  should  be  very  simple  and  of  a  kind  that  can  easily 
be  kept  clean.  The  overflow  pipe  is  usually  made  too  small 
and  too  sharply  curved.  In  it,  much  filth  then  lodges,  and 
scientific  observers  find  that  it  often  serves  as  a  culture-field 
for  germs  of  diphtheria  and  other  diseases.  An  overflow 
pipe  ought  to  be  as  straight  as  possible  and  large  enough  to 
be  seen  into  with  a  light. 

The  most  hygienic  style  of  all  is  the  very  old-fashioned 
kind  known  as  a  ''standing  overflow"  and  indicated  by  Fig. 
52  (on  page  338).  It  is  simply  a  tube  (smooth  inside  and 
outside)  which  serves  as  both  plug  and  overflow.  This  calls 
for  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  wash-bowl  shown  in  Fig.  52. 
Such  an  overflow  cannot  well  be  in  the  centre  of  the  bowl. 
The  same  simple  device  can  be  used  for  bath-tubs.  Several 
manufacturers  produce  suitable  contrivances  (which,  how- 
ever, are  not  necessary)  for  raising  this  "  standing  overflow  '* 
out  of  the  outlet  where  it  serves  as  a  basin  plug. 

There  is  a  showy  and  convenient  overflow  contrivance 
operating  in  a  tube  back  of  the 
bowl  as  indicated  by  Fig.  64.  It 
serves  either  to  plug  or  to  open  the 
pipe  (which  provides  for  the  over- 
flow from  the  bowl)  by  the  action 
of  lowering  or  raising  the  knob  (at 
\Y  the  upper  part  of  Fig.  64).  This 
attractive  but  usually  complicated 
overflow  arrangement  has  been  extensively  used  in  recent 
work.  It  seems,  however,  decidedly  inferior  in  hygienic 
merit  to  the  simpler  kinds. 


Fig.  64. 


FIXTURES    AND    PIPES  357 

The  waste-pipe,  that  carries  water  off  from  a  wash-bowl 
or  other  sink,  should  be  uniform  in  size  throughout,  and,  like 
the  trap,  this  pipe  usually  has  a  diameter  of  one  and  one- 
half  inches.  The  trap  must  be  just  as  near  to  the  bowl  as  is 
practicable.  Thereby,  the  pipe  can  be  inspected  and  easily 
cleaned  as  far  down  as  the  water-seal  of  the  trap. 

Water-pipes  and  sewage-pipes  should  (owing  to  the  sever- 
ity of  our  winter  weather)  be  within  and  on  a  warm  side  of 
a  house,  and  properly  protected  against  freezing.  It  is, 
however,  not  desirable  to  have  soil-pipes  hot. 

For  water-pipes,  galvanized  iron,  although  even  that  is 
slightly  affected  by  water,  is  hygienically  preferable  to  lead 
or  brass  even  if  the  latter  metal  be  tin-lined.  The  simplest 
"  ground-key  "  faucets  are  the  best  if  not  exposed  to  freez- 
ing cold  and  if  made  only  of  good  material  and  guaranteed. 
Wood-work,  or  any  casing,  is  undesirable  around  sinks  or 
other  plumbing  fixtures.  This  holds  with  regard  to  bath- 
tubs, which  are  spoken  of  on  page  6i. 

Kitchen  sinks,  pantry  sinks  and  other  plumbing  fixtures 
that  are  used  largely  by  servants  need  to  be  of  good  con- 
struction, and  as  well  trapped  and  carefully  attended  to  as 
any  others.  The  average  kitchen  sink  may  fairly  be  con- 
sidered as  having  more  dangerous  filth  enter  it  and  remain 
near  it  than  the  ordinary  water-closet  does.  The  wash-water 
from  vegetables  and  from  various  work  may  introduce  many 
germs  of  disease  into  the  lower  part  of  the  house.  Sinks, 
therefore,  should  be  smooth  and  free  from  wood-casing. 
They  ought  to  be  entirely  without  deep  depressions  and 
places,  however  minute,  where  filth  of  any  kind  can  lodge. 
Earthenware,  copper  or  iron  (not  galvanized  iron)  is  always 
to  be  preferred  to  wood  for  sink  surfaces.  If  rubber  be  used 
for  a  mat  to  cover  a  marble  or  other  hard  draining-board, 
care  must  be  had  to  see  that  this  rubber  is  clean  and  smooth. 

Refrigerators  must  not  be  connected  directly  with 
drains.     If  any  such  connection  is  to  be  made,  it  ought  to 


358  HOUSE    DRAINAGE.       PLUMBING 

be  entrusted  to  skilled  and  reputable  workmen  who  will 
commit  no  grave  fault  in  their  work.  Cess-pools  should  be 
banished  from  all  houses.  Grease-traps  are  usually  not 
needed.  If  traps  clog  because  of  the  entrance  of  grease, 
very  strong  and  hot  solutions  of  crude  potash  may  be  poured 
into  the  pipe  after  that  has  been  warmed  by  boiling  water. 
This  strong  alkali  affords  an  excellent  means  of  cleansing  and, 
at  the  same  time,  it  disinfects  the  trap  and  fixtures.  Other 
disinfection  of  house-drainage  fixtures  is  spoken  of  later,  on 
pages  450  and  451  (in  the  chapter  on  Disinfection). 

Steam  is  occasionally  applied  with  great  success  for  dis- 
infecting drainage  pipes.  It,  however,  requires  especial  care 
in  its  use,  and  is  not  to  be  employed  promiscuously.  It  acts 
unfavorably  upon  the  joints  of  ordinary  pipes.  Hot  water, 
to  be  an  effective  disinfectant,  must  be  very  hot,  as  explained 
in  the  chapter  on  Disinfection.  Waste-pipes  are  at  times 
fitted  with  stop-valves  to  permit  the  disinfecting  use  of  steam 
for  a  drainage  system.  Such  things  add  an  undesirable 
complexity.  Steam  must  not  be  allowed  to  escape  into 
drainage  pipes  or  sewers. 

Plumbing  may  last  for  a  dozen  years  without  requiring 
any  repairs.  Yet  it  is  well  as  a  rule  to  have  the  house 
drainage  examined  by  skilled  workmen  at  least  once  a  year. 
If  they  introduce  such  a  strong-smelling  substance  as  pep- 
permint essence  into  the  pipes,  or  if  they  force  pungent 
smoke  (see  page  212)  into  the  closed  pipes,  any  leaks  allow 
these  betraying  odors  to  come  into  the  air  of  the  house,  and 
thus  defects  are  recognized.  The  best  time  to  have  plumb- 
ing attended  to  is  before  the  re-occupancy  of  a  house  or 
other  vacated  building.  Rooms  should  be  well  cleaned  and 
aired  after  such  work  has  been  done  in  them. 


OTHER  DISPOSAL  OF  HUMAN  EXCRETA 

*'  Dry  closets "  have  been  extensively  used  in  the 
schools  of  some  districts,  and  attempts  have  been  made  to 
introduce  the  principle  elsewhere.  The  method  consists  in 
drawing  a  current  of  air  up  a  heated  flue  and  causing  this 
air,  before  it  enters  the  flue,  to  have  passed  over  the  bowel 
discharges  lying  upon  a  carefully  arranged  brick  floor. 
This  brick  floor  forms  the  bottom  of  a  vault  for  receiving 
the  bowel  discharges  (and  urine)  entering  through  seats 
above  that  are  arranged  very  much  like  the  usual  privy 
seats.  Air  is  drawn  downward,  from  the  rooms,  into  this 
vault  when  the  draught  is  upward  in  the  chimney.  Thus 
odors  are  removed  and  whatever  excrement  enters  the  vault 
is  apt  to  become  dried.  The  parts  about  being  of  fire-proof 
material,  petroleum  or  other  inflammable  substance  can  be 
poured  upon  the  contents  of  the  vault  and  burned  whenever 
that  purifying  process  be  desired. 

Such  "  dry  closets  "  must  be  considered  as  decidedly  in- 
ferior to  good  water-closets  under  all  circumstances.  This 
was  stated  on  page  99.  When  back  draughts  occur,  as  they 
appear  to  do  contrary  to  the  design  of  the  construction, 
filth  may  be  cai'ried  back  into  the  rooms  of  the  building. 
This  is  especially  the  case  in  any  system  which  makes  use 
of  the  foul  air  (drawn  down  out  of  the  rooms  through  in- 
tricate ventilating  flues  under  the  floors)  in  order  to  employ 
it  economically  for  drying  the  contents  of  the  vaults.  Facts 
seem  to  show  that  infectious  diseases  are  caused  and  spread 
by  reason  of  the  use  of  such  unsanitary  devices  as  the  more 
complicated  kinds  of  "  dry  closets." 


360  DISPOSAL    OF    HUMAN    EXCRETA 

Privy  vaults  are  very  commonly  used  in  country  dis- 
tricts and  even  in  towns  of  considerable  size.  Unless 
properly  constructed  and  cared  for,  they  may  be  very  offen- 
sive. This  is  because  the  organic  matter,  which  they  receive, 
decomposes  extensively.  Accordingly,  a  single  foul  privy 
may  develop  many  cubic  feet  of  gases  in  a  day.  Carbonic 
acid  gas  is  given  off  in  considerable  quantities  from  the  con- 
tents of  privy  vaults  ;  yet  it  is  not  odorous.  The  volatile 
fatty  acids,  the  carburetted  hydrogen  and  certain  allied 
gases  produced  there  in  large  quantities  are  extremely  offen- 
sive, as  is  also  the  less  abundant  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 
Ammonia  is  usually  present  in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  quite 
evident  to  the  nostrils. 

The  average  privy-vault  gases  are  unhealthful  when 
strong.  Hence  privies,  unless  exceptionally  well  constructed 
and  attended  to,  should  always  be  twenty  feet  or  more  away 
from  any  house,  and  several  times  as  far  away  if  the 
vault  be  leaky  or  open  on  the  sides.  They  also  need  some 
arrangement  by  which  they  can  be  ventilated  at  the  top. 
A  well-arranged  flue,  from  the  vault  and  rising  into  the  air 
above  the  roof,  will  carry  off  much  of  the  gases  of  decompo- 
sition. Heat,  constantly  maintained  by  means  of  a  suitably 
large  lamp  (or  gas  flame)  safely  placed  inside  this  flue,  aids 
ventilation  through  producing  an  upward  draught.  Around 
the  lamp,  metal  or  earthen  pipe  guards  against  fire.  It  is 
usually  not  desirable  to  have  this  ventilation  effected  by  a 
flue  warmed  by  the  house  fires.  Privies  need  to  be  kept 
light  and  well  aired. 

Privy  vaults  ought  to  be  made  water-tight.  It  is  well  that 
— as  directed  in  the  very  explicit  model  Bye-laws  of  the  Eng- 
lish Local  Government  Board — their  capacity  does  not  exceed 
eight  cubic  feet.  AVith  us,  the  great  majority  of  privy  vaults 
are  very  liable  to  be  leaky,  and  in  many  cases  are  not  walled 
in  at  all.  Hence,  they  should  be  down-hill  from  the  house, 
if  possible,  and  they  ought  invariably  to  be  so  situated  that 


PRIVIES  361 

the  underground  water,  which  supplies  any  wells,  always 
flows  downward  toward  the  privy  and  never  from  any  privy 
toward  a  well  or  water  supply  used  for  human  beings  or 
animals.  This  all-important  rule  is  very  commonly  violated 
in  all  parts  of  the  country.  In  prairies  or  other  level  regions 
a  privy  requires  to  be  one  hundred  feet  or  more  away  from 
a  well.  Even  at  that  distance  it  may  be  unsafe,  especially 
if  the  well  be  not  walled  in  as  explained  on  page  297. 

Ignorance  and  indifference  as  to  these  essential  points  are 
to  blame  for  the  occurrence  of  most  cases  of  typhoid  fever 
and  choleraic  and  other  diarrhoeal  diseases  met  in  country 
and  town  practice.  The  ordinary  contents  of  privies  are, 
however,  not  to  be  regarded  as  very  poisonous.  Their 
presence  does  not  of  necessity  provoke  illness  unless  germs 
of  harmful  disease  are  diffused  from  them.  So  long  as  the 
contents  are  moist,  no  bacteria  escape  thence  into  the  air, 
although,  through  any  existing  fault  in  the  ground,  they 
can  get  into  wells.  A  well-kept  privy,  if  properly  located, 
rarely  endangers  health  in  any  way. 

In  the  ordinary  course  of  things,  the  bacteria  of  typhoid, 
cholera  and  other  diseases  get  no  further  than  the  vault  if 
they  fall  in  there.  After  a  few  days  or  weeks,  the  action  of 
ammonia  or  other  chemical  substances  (especially  if  acid) 
that  are  formed  there  or  may  otherwise  be  present,  aided  by 
the  potent  antagonism  of  other  bacteria  present,  suffices  to 
destroy  the  germs  of  disease.  The  oxidation  caused  when 
large  amounts  of  ashes  and  other  dry  porous  substances  are 
added,  works  somewhat  toward  the  same  end.  Yet  abun- 
dant fresh  air  is  then  needed  as  well.  Since  tune  is  requi- 
site for  these  healthful  natural  agencies  to  operate,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  removal  of  disease  discharges  is  usually 
more  harmful  when  these  are  fresh  than  when  they  have 
been  standing  for  some  time  with  the  contents  of  the  vault. 

When,  however,  any  of  the  more  serious  diarrhoeal  dis- 
eases is  recognized,  or  even  suspected,  and  infectious  dis- 


362  DISPOSAL    OF    HUMAN    EXCRETA 

charges  have  entered  the  vault  without  having  undergone 
complete  disinfection,  it  is  desirable  to  sterilize  the  contents 
of  the  vault.  For  this  purpose,  two  per  cent,  of  crude 
hydrochloric  acid  or  one  per  cent,  of  freshly  slaked  quick- 
lime should  be  mixed  thoroughly  into  the  contents  of  the 
vault.  Small  amounts  sprinkled  over  the  foul  matters  are 
probably  useless.     (See  also  page  451.) 

To  deodorize  (which  does  not  mean  that  harmful  bacteria 
are  necessarily  destroyed),  sulphate  of  iron  is  used.  If  am- 
monia be  unpleasantly  evident  in  a  vault,  gypsum  may  be 
added  to  lessen  this  odor.  Where  the  odor  of  fatty  acids 
predominates,  quicklime  effects  a  deodorization  through 
chemical  union.  Crude  permanganate  of  potash  is  an  excel- 
lent deodorizer,  but  rather  expensive.  Chloride  of  lime  is 
cheaper,  and  better  if  fresh.  If  not  much  water  be  allowed 
to  enter  a  vault,  the  familiar  use  of  ashes,  dry  loam  or  other 
fine  dry  porous  earth  sprinkled  liberally  over  the  contents, 
restricts  or  removes  unpleasant  odors,  with  the  occasional 
exception  of  the  ammonia  smell.  Dry  earth,  however,  does 
not  destroy  bacteria.  Carbolic  acid  does  not  remove  the 
odor  of  a  vault. 

Privy  vaults  must  not  be  allowed  to  become  overfull,  for 
then  disease  discharges  that  enter  are  found  to  be  more 
liable  to  diffuse  infection.  In  thickly  settled  neighborhoods, 
the  removal  of  privy  contents  often  causes  very  unpleasant 
odors  for  those  near,  although  such  odors  in  themselves  do 
not  necessarily  involve  any  menace  to  health  other  than 
the  discomfort  of  nervous  and  sensitive  people.  As  already 
said,  the  filth  removed  does  not  contain  the  germs  of  dis- 
ease, unless  iiifected  matters  have  entered.  The  pneumatic 
methods  of  removal  and  transportation  in  air-tight  wagon- 
bodies  or  specially  made  tuns  are  an  improvement  upon  the 
usual  primitive  methods.  The  fire  of  such  improved  appa- 
ratus used  for  pumping  out  the  contents  can  be  utilized 
for  the  consumption  of  the  foul  gases. 


PRIVIES.       PAIL    SYSTEM,  ETC. 


i^S 


To  test  whether  privies,  cess-pools,  etc.,  connect  with 
wells  and  are  liable  to  contaminate  the  water  of  these,  one 
ounce  of  the  chloride  of  litJiiiun  is  dissolved  in  a  quart  or 
more  of  water,  and  this  is  poured  into  the  vault  or  other 
questionable  source  of  contamination.     (See  page  298.) 

Saprol,  a  coal-tar  product,  is  used  similarly  for  a  more 
simple,  ready  test.  Its  strong  odor  and  taste  (like  naphtha- 
line or  illuminating  gas)  cause  it  to  be  recognized  by  its 
smell,  and  more  readily  by  its  taste,  even  if  only  one  part  be 
present  in  a  million  parts  of  water. 

Modifications  of  the  privy  system  are  employed  with 
the  idea  of  utilizing  the  manure 
yielded  by  human  excreta.  In 
some  large  towns  and  cities,  espe- 
cially in  Great  Britain,  metal  boxes 
on  wheels,  or  petroleum  casks  sawed 
in  two  and  tarred  within,  or  pails 
of  tarred  oak  with  tightly  closing, 
rubber-edged  covers  (see  Fig.  65) 
are  used  in  place  of  privy  vaults. 
These  (with  the  cover  removed) 
are  kept  under  the  seats.  In  some  places  they  also  receive 
all  the  dry  refuse  from  a  house. 

This  system  is  managed  in  a  model  manner  in  Greifs- 
wald  (Germany).  There  it  is  found  that  the  use  of  mingled 
streaming  water  and  steam  (at  a  temperature  of  235°  F.), 
driven  into  an  empty,  inverted  pail  for  two  minutes,  effect- 
ually sterilizes  it.  A  pail  that  is  new  and  smooth  requires 
less  than  half  that  time. 

It  is  necessary  to  remove  the  receptacles  and  their  ac- 
cumulations at  frequent  intervals.  At  the  same  time,  empty 
receptacles  are  substituted.  Various  complications  are  in- 
troduced into  these  systems.  They  are  not  inexpensive  ; 
while,  too,  they  offer  a  ready  means  for  the  dissemination 
of  infection,  unless  most  carefully  managed. 


Fig.  65. 


364  DISPOSAL    OF    HUMAN    EXCRETA 

Therein  lies  a  very  important  defect.  Privies  would  be 
preferable  but  for  the  usual  defects  of  their  construction  and 
their  consequent  greater  liability  to  cause  contamination  of 
wells.  When  offal,  garbage,  coarse  ashes  and  other  house- 
hold refuse  are  thrown  in,  the  manure  produced  is  not  of 
much  value.  Voelcker,  who  studied  the  manure  question 
very  thoroughly,  stated  that  the  theoretical  value  of  night- 
soil  manure  at  its  best  is  never  more  than  five  dollars  a  ton 
unless  superphosphates  or  other  fertilizer  be  added. 

All  these  methods  are  inferior  to  good  sewer  systems  and 
are  more  liable  to  endanger  health.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  manure  therefrom  obtained  ever  pays  for  the  cost  of 
securing  it.  Like  privies,  these  devices  all  fail  to  provide 
for  house-water,  slops,  manufactory  washings  and  other  fluid 
nitrogenous  waste.     This  is  a  great  hygienic  defect. 

There  are  various  methods  of  treating  human  excreta  by 
adding  chemicals.  As  an  instance,  the  ''  alum-blood-clay  " 
process  used  at  Leeds  in  England  may  be  mentioned. 
This,  like  the  use  of  combinations  of  quicklime  and  other 
chemicals  in  various  cities,  deserves  no  further  considera- 
tion here.  All  of  these  are  without  distinctive  merit.  They 
are  more  adapted  for  special  foreign  conditions  than  for 
American  cities.  The  Liernur  system,  used  in  some  parts 
of  the  Low  Countries  of  Europe,  cannot  be  recommended 
for  any  part  of  America.  A  sewage  system,  even  if  the 
location  necessitate  pumping  facilities,  is  in  every  way  pref- 
erable where  a  sufficient  water  supply  exists. 

Earth-closets  furnish  a  very  satisfactory  means  for  dis- 
posing of  excrement  under  certain  conditions,  and  that  with- 
out odors  arising,  if  sufficient  dry  earth  be  used.  Owing  to 
the  fact  that  a  sufficient  supply  of  suitable  soil  cannot  usu- 
ally be  furnished  cheaply  for  a  large  population,  the  cost  is 
considerable  if  the  system  be  adopted  for  cities.  If  ashes 
or  sand  are  substituted,  the  results  are  less  satisfactory. 
This  method  does  not  permit  the  entrance  of  watery  refuse. 


EARTH-CLOSETS  365 

Hence  it  provides  for  only  a  fraction  of  the  waste  matters 
of  a  community.  It  is  better  adapted  for  a  dry  region  where 
there  is  a  scanty  water  supply  than  for  a  wet  one.  It  is 
excellent  for  camps  where  all  disease  discharges  are  promptly 
disinfected.     The  original  cost  of  the  earth-closet  is  small. 

The  manure  value  of  the  compost  produced  is  rather 
overestimated  by  the  extreme  advocates  of  the  earth-closet 
system.  Yet  this  compost,  when  no  disease  discharges  are 
present  in  it,  is  excellent  for  garden  use.  The  danger  of 
the  spread  of  infection  is  apt  to  be  greater  in  case  of  dis- 
ease germs  entering  an  earth-closet  than  when  well-located 
and  water-tight  privy  vaults  are  used,  no  special  means  for 
the  disinfection  of  disease  discharges  being  adopted  in  either 
case.  When  dried,  bacteria  are  not  at  once  destroyed  ;  but 
are  thereby  rendered  more  liable  to  remain  alive  and  to  be 
diffused  than  when  they  are  kept  moist  in  contact  with 
other,  hardier  bacteria  as  is  the  case  in  the  ordinary  privy 
vault. 

Earth-closets  can  be  very  ne^r  or  even  within  a  house  with- 
out any  objectionable  odors  existing.  It  is  not  advisable 
that  they  remain  inside  of  a  house.  So  effective  a  deodor- 
izer and  absorbent  is  suitable  dry  loam,  that  it  makes  an 
excellent  material  for  strewing  in  bed-pans.  Yet  discharges, 
that  enter  these,  always  need  subsequent  sterilization  if  the 
disease  be  infectious.  If  the  used  soil  of  an  earth-closet  be 
suspected  of  having  received  disease  discharges,  it  ought  to 
be  treated  with  great  caution  and  in  no  case  to  be  employed 
again.  Ordinarily,  when  it  has  received  only  the  discharges 
of  healthy  people,  the  dry  earth  can  be  used  over  and  over 
again  ;  for  after  a  number  of  months  the  matters  removed 
from  the  receptacles  are  found  to  have  become  converted 
into  garden  mould  appearing  quite  like  the  original  earth 
used. 

Earth-closets  require,  for  each  individual  using  them,  a 
daily  allowance  of  from  two  to  five  pounds  of  dried  loam  or 


366  DISPOSAL    OF    HUMAN    EXCRETA 

heavier,  clayey  soil  without  much  sand  in  it.  Peaty  soil  will 
suffice  for  the  purpose.  Vegetable  moulds  are  in  general 
excellent  as  absorbents  in  these  closets.  A  special  stove  or 
other  means  of  thoroughly  drying  the  earth  is  needed,  and 
the  earth  must  be  kept  dry  in  the  closets  before  use.  The 
coarser  particles,  stones  and  twigs  must  be  removed  by 
screening  so  that  only  fine  earth  is  used  for  sprinkling  over 
the  excrement  deposited  in  the  closets. 

Earth-closets  can  be  efficient  and  yet  very  inexpensive  to 
construct.  The  essential  parts  in  their  construction  are  : 
(i)  A  supported  seat  under  which  is  (2)  the  removable  re- 
ceptacle for  excrement.  (3)  A  holder  is  needed  for  fine  dry 
earth,  which  is  to  be  sprinkled  liberally  upon  the  paper  and 
discharges  that  are  thrown  in.  This  holder  may  be  merely 
a  box  with  a  scoop,  or  it  may  be  a  "  hopper  "  with  a  more  or 
less  elaborate  arrangement  for  sprinkling  the  earth  over  any- 
thing that  enters  the  removable  receptacle  beneath  the  seat. 
Moisture  does  not  as  a  rule  reach  the  walls  of  the  box  used 
for  this  latter  purpose  if  proper  care  be  taken  to  use  enough 
dry  earth  and  if  two  inches  or  more  of  such  dry  earth  are  in 
the  bottom  of  this  box  when  it  is  put  into  place  for  use.  Yet 
it  is  well  that  the  receptacles  for  excreta,  when  of  wood,  be 
coated  two  or  three  times  with  asphalt  varnish. 

All  the  systems  of  keeping  the  discharges  with  a  view  of 
utilizing  them  for  manure  are  less  economical  than  they 
seem.  The  production  of  salable  manure  by  the  conversion 
of  the  contents  of  privy  vaults  and  similar  receptacles,  even 
in  the  systematic  and  scientific  way  that  this  is  done  in  Paris 
(at  La  Villette),  causes  more  or  less  of  a  nuisance,  and  Is 
rather  expensive.  If  ashes  have  been  added,  the  manure 
value  of  the  product  is  slight. 

Wherever  earth -closets,  or  receptacles  of  any  sort,  are 
used  for  the  solid  waste,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  house 
water  and  other  liquid  waste  is  not  disregarded  and  care- 
lessly allowed   to   soak   into   the  ground   near  the  house. 


SUPERIORITY    OF    SEWERS  367 

Cesspools  or  other  vaults  must  be  made  perfectly  tight. 
Wherever  these  are  used,  especial  attention  must  be  given 
to  preventing  all  contamination  of  the  water  supply. 

A  good  system  of  sewers  with  an  abundant  water  supply 
is  hygienically  preferable  to  any  other  method,  when  it  is  a 
question  of  caring  for  the  wastes  of  a  large  community. 
For  smaller  settlements,  the  same  is  true  if  the  construction 
and  maintenance  of  the  sewers  are  of  the  very  best.  Fig- 
ures recently  given  by  some  of  our  cities  appear  to  show 
that,  when  good  sewers  are  once  introduced,  they  provide 
for  the  removal  of  waste  matters  at  a  cost  much  lower  than 
where  scavenger  fees  are  made  necessary  because  of  the 
employment  of  privies  and  other  inferior  substitutes  for 
good  drainage  systems. 

A  liberal  supply  of  pure  water  ought  to  be  assured  before 
sewers  are  introduced.  The  imposition  of  restrictions  and 
penalties  upon  those  who  use  water  freely  in  order  to  keep 
their  house-drainage  pipes  and  fixtures  constantly  clean  is 
usually  a  detriment  to  health.  A  community  should  strive 
to  secure  a  pure  water  supply  so  ample  that  a  lavish  use  of 
it  is  permissible. 


DISPOSAL   OF   GARBAGE    AND   OTHER 
SOLID    REFUSE 

It  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  that  germs  of  disease 
are  at  times  abundant  in  the  dirt  of  our  streets.  The  more 
this  dirt  is  allowed  to  increase,  the  less  easy  it  is  for  the 
healthful  activity  of  the  sunlight  and  fresh  air  to  be  opera- 
tive and  destroy  the  germs  of  disease.  Decomposition  also 
takes  place  in  street  filth  unless  that  remain  very  cold  and 
dry.  Accordingly,  the  streets  need  to  be  kept  very  clean. 
(See  page  159.)  All  decomposable  (organic)  refuse  must  be 
removed  from  streets  and  dwellings.  Otherwise,  diseases  of 
various  kinds  are  more  apt  to  abound  and  be  serious. 

All  house  refuse  and  manufacturing  waste,  that  will  not 
readily  flow  off  in  the  drainage  systems  connecting  wiih  the 
sewers,  must  also  be  disposed  of  very  promptly  and  in  a  way 
that  will  effectually  prevent  any  danger  or  annoyance.  The 
problem  of  how  to  do  this  most  satisfactorily  and  at  the 
same  time  economically  is  often  a  difficult  one.  The  solu- 
tion of  the  question  always  depends  upon  the  locality. 

Use  of  the  ocean,  in  parts  several  miles  away  from 
shore,  for  receiving  refuse,  has  been  extensively  made  by  the 
cities  of  Liverpool,  Dublin  and  New  York.  In  the  case  of 
the  latter  city,  about  half  of  the  yearly  total  of  somewhat  less 
than  two  million  cartloads  of  material  there  deposited  in  the 
"  dumps  "  by  the  street-cleaning  and  refuse-removing  de- 
partment has,  up  to  the  present  time,  been  emptied  far  out 
in  the  open  sea.     This  refuse  is  towed  out  in  scows. 

At  time  of  very  unfavorable  weather,  these  scows  (especially 
if  of  the  old,  flat  style)  cannot  get  out  to  sea.     The  matters 


DIFFERENT    METHODS  369 

then  accumulate  to  the  annoyance  and  ill  health  of  all.  In 
any  case,  the  refuse  is  liable  to  block  up  channels  and  de- 
file distant  shores.  In  the  long  run,  the  use  of  the  ocean  for 
receiving  this  waste  is  unsatisfactory. 

The  refuse  collected  in  New  York  City  consists  of : — 

Ashes,  ......  62  per  cent. 

Garbage, 12  "      " 

Street  sweepings,         .         .         .         .  24    "       " 

Ice  and  snow,       .         .         .         .         ,  2   **      " 

The  greater  part  of  these  substances  could  be  used  for 
filling  in  submerged  lands  which  it  is  desired  to  reclaim. 
For  the  coming  seven  or  eight  years  at  least,  the  refuse  of 
that  city  will  be  utilized  for  thus  making  new  land. 

More  than  one-third  of  the  average  housekeeping  refuse 
is  of  a  sort  that  will  decompose  with  offensive  odors.  Bury- 
ing this  is  usually  an  unsatisfactory  means  of  disposing  of 
any  very  large  amount  of  such  putrescent  waste.  Burning 
it  by  specially  constructed  furnaces  is  the  most  satisfactory 
way  to  get  rid  of  garbage.  Kitchen  ranges  can  be  made 
to  accomplish  this  in  a  small  way.  It  is  cheaper  and  more 
convenient,  however,  to  have  garbage  and  street  sweepings 
consumed  in  large  crematories  or  ''  destroying  furnaces  " 
built  for  this  particular  purpose. 

Garbage-destroying  furnaces  have  been  much  used  in 
England  during  the  last  seventeen  years.  The  continued 
and  increasing  employment  of  these  appears  there  to  give 
highly  satisfactory  results.  In  this  country,  only  a  limited 
number  of  those  experimented  with  are  considered  success- 
ful. Local  conditions  are  important  in  determining  the 
economic  value  of  such  appliances.  It  is  stated  that  a  fur- 
nace, costing  originally  $5,700,  disposes  of  thirty  tons  of 
garbage  per  day  and  is  operated  at  the  cost  of  only  $150 
per  month.  Yet  in  Buffalo  and  other  cities,  this  healthful 
method  is  reported  to  have  failed  for  various  reasons. 
24 


370  GARBAGE    AND    OTHER    SOLID    REFUSE 

The  fact  that  most  of  the  furnaces  used  with  us  are  de- 
fective has  had  much  to  do  with  the  failure  to  adopt  this 
sanitary  method  of  destroying  garbage  and  other  harmful 
waste.  The  ordinary  furnace  is  objectionable  because,  even 
though  otherwise  satisfactory,  it  does  not  provide  for  con- 
suming offensive  gases.  This  can  constitute  a  serious  defect 
and  may  even  cause  the  apparatus  to  become  a  nuisance. 

Municipalities  contemplating  the  adoption  of  crematories 
for  destroying  garbage  and  street  sweepings  would  do  well  to 
consider  the  healthful  results  and  low  cost  of  the  best  Eng- 
lish garbage  furnaces,  the  cost  there  being  given  as  even  less 
than  from  seven  to  fourteen  cents  per  ton.  The  economical 
management  of  the  garbage  destroyers  at  Southampton  and 
at  Chelsea  (London)  is  worthy  of  study,  together  with  the 
results  from  others  of  the  forty  or  more  English  cities  using 
such  admirable  methods. 

The  various  British  furnaces  are  to  be  divided  into  three 
classes  : — (i)  Those  burning  up  only  street  sweepings  and 
house  waste.  These  can  exist  in  the  midst  of  cities  without 
causing  nuisances.  (2)  Others  are  used  to  burn  up  sewage 
sludge  also.  (3)  Some  places  employ  furnaces  to  dispose 
of  all  the  above  and  of  "  night-soil  "  as  well.  A  chimney 
175  feet  high  is  needed  for  each  crematory.  Arrangements 
should  be  provided  at  the  base  of  the  chimney  for  burning 
up  the  unpleasant  smoke,  as  is  done  at  Ealing  (near  Lon- 
don), at  Bradford  and  elsewhere. 

The  collection  of  household  waste  must  be  systematic 
and  cleanly,  whether  done  by  private  agents  (as  in  New 
Haven,  for  instance)  or  by  the  city  authorities.  It  is  best 
that  people  keep  garbage  separate  from  ashes  in  the  house- 
hold, as  also  in  the  process  of  collection.  In  any  case,  the 
carts  used  with  the  prevalent  methods  should  have  covers. 
A  satisfactory  way,  for  a  small  community  at  least,  is  to  use 
closed,  galvanized-iron  receptacles  to  be  taken  away  filled 
and  unopened  and  to  be   returned   after  emptying.     This 


INFECTION    TO    RE    DESTROYED 


371 


adds  to  the  cost.  If  households  do  not  regularly  receive  the 
same  receptacles,  they  must  not  get  any  container  that  has 
received  infected  matters  without  having  undergone  subse- 
quent disinfection  (preferably  by  steam). 

Carcasses  of  animals  must  always  be  under  the  control 
of  health  officers.  A  penalty  should  be  inflicted  upon 
establishments  which  do  not  reveal  the  fact  at  once  when- 
ever they  receive  carcasses  that  have  the  signs  of  infectious 
disease.  Carcasses  of  animals  that  have  had  these  diseases, 
notably  glanders  and  splenic  fever,  are  to  be  handled  with 
great  care,  owing  to  danger  of  infection  being  communicated 
from  them  to  human  beings  as  well  as  to  animals.  Such 
carcasses  ought  to  be  destroyed  at  once  either  by  fire,  by 
steaming,  or  by  burying  with  abundant  quicklime.  The 
burying  must  be  very  deep  and  far  from  any  buildings. 

When  once  in  the  steaming  caldron  of  the  rendering 
establishment,  the  germs  of  disease  need  no  longer  be 
feared.  By  using  suitable  appliances,  which  do  not  much 
increase  the  cost  of  working,  the  business  of  utilizing  such 
things  is  rendered  much  less  of  a  nuisance  than  it  usually  is. 
Extreme  cleanliness  should  be  enforced  upon  those  who 
manage  such  things.  The  closed  wagons  used  for  convey- 
ing the  carcasses  of  horses  and  other  animals  that  have  died 
from  disease  should  be  especially  adapted  for  the  purpose, 
with  large  and  tight  boxes  so  that  no  blood  or  other  matters 
escape  during  transportation.  All  manure  from  such  animals 
must  be  burned.  The  use  of  the  apparatus  that  is  shown  in 
Fig.  85  is  valuable  for  disinfecting  wagons.     (See  page  443.) 


DISPOSAL    OF  THE   DEAD 

When  death  has  resulted  from  an  infectious  disease, 
extreme  care  ought  to  be  taken  to  prevent  extension  of  the 
infection  through  thoughtless  contact  of  mourners  or  others 
with  the  body  or  shroud.  A  few  diseases  are  conspicuously- 
liable  at  times  to  be  disseminated  by  such  means. 

Diphtheria  is  one  of  these.  It  is  too  often  caused  by 
kissing  the  face  of  one  who  has  died  from  that  disease. 
This  also,  like  other  diseases  of  childhood,  may  be  carried 
from  the  death-chamber  to  children  and  others  who  have 
not  been  near  the  house.  The  burial  should  take  place  as 
soon  after  death  as  is  possible  consistent  with  decency. 

The  management  of  funerals  seems  most  satisfactory  and 
capable  of  being  most  hygienically  conducted  when  in  the 
charge  of  large  concerns,  as  is  the  custom  in  some  cities  of 
continental  Europe.  These  concerns  have  specially  skilled 
employees.  Such  people  can  have  had  the  proper  training 
in  the  exact  steps  to  take  for  preventing  the  spread  of  infec- 
tion. They  may  accordingly  be  a  valuable  aid  to  the 
restriction  of  communicable  diseases.  The  suitable  meas- 
ures to  be  taken  with  corpses  from  infectious  diseases  are 
explained  in  the  chapter  on  Disinfection. 

The  final  services  are  best  held  in  chapels  near  a  ceme- 
tery or  crematory,  where  rooms  may  be  arranged  for  the 
bodies  to  lie.  In  these  special  rooms,  various  electrical 
devices,  of  extreme  sensitiveness,  can  be  adjusted  to  the 
body  so  as  to  reveal  (by  bells  and  indicators)  any  movement 
or  sign  of  life  whatsoever.  These  appliances  give  great 
relief,  at  times,  to  apprehensive  friends  who  consider  that 


DECOMPOSITION    AFTER    BURIAL  373 

sometimes  people  are  buried  while  life  yet  remains  in  the 
body. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  dead  body  begins 
speedily  to  decompose,  owing  to  the  presence  of  bacteria. 
These  multiply  rapidly  in  the  organic  matters  of  the  body. 
The  conditions  there  existing  after  death,  favor  such  micro- 
organic  growth.  In  the  beginning,  the  decomposition  bac- 
teria come  chiefly  from  the  bowels.  Then  others  enter  the 
body.  They  develop  greatly  after  the  skin  has  been 
caused  to  burst  owing  to  the  considerable  production  of 
hydrogen,  carbonic  acid  and  other  gases  resulting  from  the 
action  of  the  bacteria.  After  a  while,  the  larvae  of  flies  and 
earthworms  develop  and  take  a  part  in  the  process  of 
organic  destruction.  Toward  the  end,  the  bacteria  lessen. 
The  dryer,  loamy  substance  remaining  has  perhaps  chiefly 
moulds  present  for  a  time.  This  healthful  natural  process 
of  destruction  is  obstructed  by  impervious  coffins,  which 
therefore  are  not  to  be  approved  of.  The  porous  and 
quickly  destructible  coffins  advocated  by  Mr.  Seymour 
Haden  are  much  to  be  preferred. 

The  germs  of  most  infectious  diseases  almost  always  have 
lost  their  virulence  or  are  dead  within  a  few  months  of  ordi- 
nary interment.  The  few  exceptions  are  mentioned  on  page 
376.  The  organic  matters  of  the  body  are  usually  destroyed 
within  from  four  to  ten  years  of  interment,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  body  and  the  character  of  the  soil.  Other 
factors,  as  warmth,  dryness  and  access  of  air,  hasten  the 
process.  Yet,  for  a  while,  corpses  decompose  several  times 
as  fast  if  floating  in  water  or  if,  when  buried,  they  be  covered 
by  the  water  of  the  ground. 

When  the  decomposition  of  a  body  in  water  has  advanced 
somewhat,  it  is  liable  to  be  arrested  or,  in  rare  cases,  the 
tissues  change,  especially  in  the  skin,  into  adipocere.  This 
is  a  grayish,  odorless,  crumbly  substance  looking  like  fat  or 
hard  wax.     Its  origin  is  not  well  explained.     If  a  corpse 


374  DISPOSAL    OF    THE    DEAD 

that  has  been  kept  wet  be  left  to  decompose  in  dry  ground, 
the  process  then  goes  on  very  rapidly. 

Great  dryness,  as  prevailing  for  instance  in  high  altitudes, 
prevents  decomposition.  So,  too,  does  very  low  temper- 
ature. Uniform  cold,  such  as  that  of  ice  with  colder  air 
about  it,  keeps  the  tissues  largely  unchanged  even  for  centu- 
ries. Dry  warm  air,  and  also  cold  winds  when  not  damp 
cause  the  moisture  to  leave  the  body  so  that  bacteria  cannot 
act.  Then  the  corpse  becomes  dry  and  crumbly  like  a 
mummy.  This  drying  does  not  necessarily  destroy  the  bac- 
teria as  quickly  as  the  usual  processes  in  interment. 

Corpses  are  also  to  a  varying  extent  preserved  from  de- 
composition when  death  has  come  from  poisoning  by  sul- 
phuric acid,  alcohol,  phosphorus  and  especially  when  arsenic 
or  corrosive  sublimate  of  mercury  has  been  the  means  of 
death.  Hence  the  use  of  the  latter  two  chemicals  for  em- 
balming purposes.  The  process  of  embalming  must  not  be 
employed  except  when  unquestionably  necessary.  At  times 
it  may  be  used  to  disguise  a  crime. 

Cemetery  sites  should  be  free  from  residences.  An 
elevated,  dry,  porous  and  quite  level  plain  is  excellent  for 
the  purpose.  There  ought  to  be  considerably  more  than  six 
feet  of  soil.  A  sandy  loam  is  best.  An  admixture  of  limy 
soil  with  it  is  good.  Clay  is  an  objectionable  element  in 
the  ground  above  the  subsoil. 

It  ought  to  be  carefully  determined  how  high  the  ground- 
water rises.  The  upper  level  of  this  must  always  be  con- 
siderably below  the  six  feet  or  more  of  earth  into  which  the 
grave  is  to  be  sunk.  Subsoil  drainage  is  necessary  if  the 
ground-water  level  seem  liable  to  rise  near  to  the  bottom  of 
the  graves.  Vegetation  should  be  encouraged,  both  for  its 
beauty  and  because  it  disposes  of  the  products  of  decom- 
position. There  should  not  be  an  excess  of  trees.  Those 
which  do  not  shed  their  leaves  are  best.  Ivy  for  graves  and 
walls  is  to  be  recommended. 


CEMETERIES    AND    HEALTH  375 

Habitations  are  usually  required  to  be  fifty  feet  or  more 
away  from  graves.  It  is  not  thought  proper  to  have  a  well 
within  two  hundred  feet  of  a  grave  if  the  ground-water  flows 
from  the  grave  toward  the  well.  The  usual  efficacy  of  the 
soil  in  arresting  the  passage  of  bacteria  is  as  a  rule  very 
great,  as  indicated  on  page  3  and  elsewhere.  Owing  to  the 
possible  occurrence  of  flaws  in  the  ground,  the  above  dis- 
tance is  given  in  order  to  err  on  the  side  of  safety. 

Tombs  and  vaults  ought  not  to  be  used  for  any  but  ex- 
ceptional cases,  and  never  for  corpses  from  infectious 
diseases.  If  several  bodies  are  buried  at  the  same  time, 
each  should  be  allowed  an  area  of  not  much  less  than  fifty 
square  feet  of  ground  surface.  Corpses  from  infectious 
diseases  should  have  been  enveloped  in  cloths  wet  with 
solutions  of  carbolic  acid  (i  to  25)  or  corrosive  sublimate 
(i  to  T,ooo),  to  which  glycerine  has  been  added. 

The  question  as  to  the  harmfulness  of  interring  a  body  in 
the  soil  of  a  burying-ground  has  caused  much  discussion 
among  thoughtful  people.  Some  allege  that  air,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  graves,  is  apt  to  be  contaminated,  that  the 
water  is  there  injuriously  affected  and  that  the  soil  is  ren- 
dered permanently  unhealthful.  If  the  precautions  above 
indicated  have  been  observed,  these  apprehensions  are  found 
not  to  be  substantiated.  Careful  scientific  investigations 
have  proved  that  the  dangers  of  graveyards  are  in  general 
much  exaggerated. 

The  five  feet  of  dry,  loamy  soil  above  the  corpse  absorbs 
and  beneficially  converts  most  of  the  gases  produced.  Their 
existence  is  not  recognizable  or  harmful  if  ordinary  care  in 
burial  be  taken.  If  the  body  be  disturbed  before  the  above 
described  natural  processes,  of  destroying  the  organic  matter 
of  the  body,  have  run  their  course,  odors  may  arise  and 
bacteria  be  scattered  abroad. 

It  is  found  that  the  water  is  not  affected  for  more  than  a 
very  few  feet  away  from  the  grave,  if  the  burial  be  in  proper, 


376  DISPOSAL    OF    THE    DEAD 

porous  ground.  In  this  country,  as  in  Europe,  the  water  of 
wells  and  springs  in  burying-grounds  is  usually  found,  on 
careful  analysis,  to  be  in  every  respect  purer  than  the  average 
drinking-water  that  people  use  with  safety.  From  an  average 
tenement  or  boarding-house,  contamination  of  water  near  it 
is  much  more  liable  to  result  than  from  any  properly  managed 
and  suitably  located  graveyards. 

The  soil  appears  to  receive  the  infection  in  only  a  very 
limited  way.  The  activity  of  various  bacteria  of  decompo- 
sition and  the  presence  of  gases  or  the  deficiency  of  oxygen 
are  operative  to  cause  the  destruction  of  the  germs  of  dis- 
ease. Hence  it  is  found  that  harmful  bacteria  die  out  gen- 
erally within  a  few  weeks  or  months  after  the  interment  in 
proper  ground.  As  an  exception  to  this  rule,  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  the  bacilli  and  spores  of  the  rare  disease 
anthrax  (splenic  fever)  can  survive  at  times  for  even  five 
years.  Pasteur  has  shown  this  and  has  explained,  too,  that 
earthworms  can  at  times  carry  the  germs  of  this  disease  up 
to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Hence  such  cases  ought  to 
be  buried  very  deep,  and  are  proper  subjects  for  cremation. 

Cases  are  also  reported  on  good  authority  where  the  germs 
of  disease  in  buried  corpses  apparently  retained  their  viru- 
lence for  several  years.  Schottelius  has  found  that  portions 
of  a  tuberculous  lung  were  infectious  for  thirty  months  after 
burial.  SchoU  also  relates  that  cholera  bacilli  are  at  times 
very  long-lived  when  interred.  In  bones,  the  dangerous 
bacteria  live  much  longer  than  in  the  softer  organs.  So,  it 
appears  that  the  bodies  of  those  who  have  died  from  infec- 
tious diseases  ought  to  be  buried  deep  and  with  great  care, 
following  the  precautions  indicated  here  as  to  choice  of 
proper  ground.  Such  graves  must  not  be  opened  within  five 
years  after  the  interments.     Thereby,  safety  is  secured. 

It  is  not  generally  realized  that  the  domestic  and  general 
waste  of  an  average  population  causes  one  hundred  times 
as  much  organic  matter  to  be  given  into  streets,  sewers  and 


DANGER    OF    INFECTION  377 

garbage  in  a  given  time  as  is  contained  in  the  bodies  of 
those  dying  in  that  period.  Mild  cases  of  disease,  even,  may- 
be highly  infectious,  and  a  careless  patient  having  consump- 
tion or  diphtheria,  small-pox,  typhoid,  cholera  or  other  dis- 
ease of  an  infectious  nature  can  be  vastly  more  dangerous 
than  a  corpse,  especially  if  proper  precautions  be  taken  to 
prevent  disease  germs  escaping  from  the  body  whether  to  be 
cremated  or  buried.  When  once  in  the  ground,  the  body 
can  cause  no  harm  if  the  interment  have  been  rightly 
managed. 

Cremation  is  much  advocated  for  disposal  of  the  dead. 
It  is  very  valuable  for  infectious  diseases,  especially  when 
they  are  epidemic  and  where  insufficient  burial  accommo- 
dation exists.  On  the  high  seas,  corpses  from  such  diseases 
should  be  heavily  weighted  and  sunk  in  deep  water  at  once 
if  they  cannot  be  burned  in  the  vessel's  furnace. 

Fire  is  an  ideal  and  aesthetically  pure  means  of  quickly 
destroying  all  infection  and  bringing  matter  back  to  its 
original  elements.  Yet  cremation  offends  the  religious  and 
sentimental  feelings  of  some  people,  and  it  may  further- 
more be  employed  to  destroy  all  evidence  of  crime  in  cases 
of  murder  (whether  by  violence  or  by  poisoning).  Hence, 
any  suspicion  of  homicide  ought  to  prevent  cremation. 

Thus  far,  cremation  is  too  expensive  for  adoption  by  the 
multitude.  Thirty-five  dollars  is  the  customary  charge  in 
New  York  State  for  the  mere  conversion  of  the  body  to 
ashes.     There  are  other  unavoidable  expenses  to  be  added. 


BACTERIA    AND    DISEASE 

From  the  invaluable  results  of  scientific  observations 
made  during  the  last  fifteen  years,  we  have  come  to  regard 
that  certain  minute  living  organisms  possess  an  extreme  im- 
portance as  causes  of  various  infectious  diseases.  These 
disease-producing  microorganisms  (or  microbes)  are  visible 
only  by  means  of  high  powers  of  the  microscope,  and  nearly 
all  of  them  are  to  be  classed  as  bacteria.  The  word 
"  germs  "  is  often  specifically  used  to  indicate  bacteria. 

Bacteria  belong  in  the  botanical  class  called  schizomycetes. 
This  Greek  term  signifies  that  they  multiply  by  division  of 
the  cell  (that  each  one  consists  of)  into  new  cells.  For 
this  division,  the  minute  protoplasmic  cell  increases  slightly 
in  size.  Then  it  divides  into  two  independent  cells  which 
are  like  the  original  (parent)  cell.  This  process  requires 
from  a  few  minutes  to  several  hours  for  its  completion. 
Multiplying  thus  rapidly,  a  single  individual  bacterium  can 
in  one  day  increase  to  several  millions  of  bacteria  if  the 
conditions  be  favorable. 

Good  microscopes  with  strong  "  dry  "  objective  lenses  suf- 
fice for  recognizing  many  of  these  bacteria.  To  distinguish 
definitely  the  smaller  and  less  distinct  forms,  oil-immersion 
objectives  magnifying  a  thousand  times  or  more  are  neces- 
sary, and  the  stage  of  the  microscope  requires  to  be  pro- 
vided with  an  Abbe  condenser. 

Using  hanging  drops  (of  heat-sterilized  water  or  beef-tea 
as  illustrated  on  the  next  page)  we  observe  that  bacteria 
differ  greatly  in  their  mobility.  The  bacillus  of  typhoid, 
for  example,  moves  about  very  vigorously.  Others  may 
even  show  no  motion  at  all. 


BACTERIA 


379 


To  study  this  movement  and  also  the  developmental 
activity  of  bacteria,  we  commonly  use  a  microscope  slide 
having  in  the  middle  a  slight  hollow.  (See  Fig.  66  ;  A^ 
face  view  ;   B,  side  view.)     On  the  under  side  of  a  thin  film 


ill;     @-c 

A 

^       e 

Fig.  66. 


of  "  covering  glass  "  (d),  which  rests  over  this  hollow  (a)  in 
the  slide,  is  a  haiigmg  drop  (c)  of  sterilized  beef-tea  or  water. 
Into  this  liquid,  a  few  bacteria  are  introduced  by  the  tip  of 
a  previously  sterilized  platinum  wire  that  is  fixed  in  a  glass 
rod.     (See  page  381.) 

In  order  to  measure  the  size  of  bacteria,  we  employ  an  accurately 
marked  and  tested  glass  plate  in  a  special  one  of  the  eye-pieces  of  the 
microscope.  By  a  delicate  machine,  the  markings  on  the  glass  plate 
are  exactly  ruled  so  that  each  corresponds  to  a  definite  distance  on  the 
field  where  the  object  is  seen.  As  a  standard  of  measurement  for  these 
microorganisms,  we  commonly  take  the  thousandth  part  of  a  millimeter. 
This  is  called  a  micromillimeter  or  mikron.  In  scientific  works  it  is 
usually  indicated  by  the  Greek  letter  fx.  It  is  nearly  equivalent  to 
^o uTJo  inch  (or  one-eighth  of  the  size  of  a  red 
blood  corpuscle),  since  25.4  millimeters  make 
one  inch. 

A  7}iikron  {u),  then,  is  the  standard  for 
measuring  the  size  of  the  smaller  forms  of 
microorganisms.  Some  bacteria,  among  others 
the  round  ones  that  cause  erysipelas  (see  Fig.  67)  and  also  several  of 
the  kinds  that  cause  suppuration  (see  Fig,  68),  are  less  than  one  mikron 
in  size.     Others,  like  the  bacilli  of  typhoid  fever  (see  Fig.  74),  are  per- 


1. 

£iPELAS 

X  650. 
Fig.  67. 


\V. 


#w 


PUS- coco 


X  1400. 
Fig.  68. 


380  BACTERIA    AND    DISEASE 

haps  two  or  three  mikrons  long  and  about  one-third  as  broad.  The 
bacilli  of  tuberculosis  are  slender  and  vary  from  i^  to  4^  mikrons 
in  length.  They  may  at  times  be  longer,  but  are  always  slender. 
(See  Fig.  80,  where  some  of  them  are  represented  as  unusually  thick.) 
The  forms  of  bacteria  may  change  somewhat  under  various  in- 
fluences. But  the  shapes  are  typical, 
as  a  rule.  For  purposes  of  description,  ^|) 
we  speak  of  them  as  : —  ^^^ 

(i)  Bacteria  (a  general  term  not  indi-      pneumonia 
eating  size  or  shape).  ^       °' 

(2)  Micrococci.     These  are  round  (or 
pos-cELi.  roundish)  bacteria.     They  may  occur  singly  and  iso- 
lated, or  may  be  in  pairs  {diplococci,  Figs.  69,  70)  ; 
in   fours  {sarcina)  ;    in  chains  {st7-eptococci ,  Figs.  67, 
68,  D) ;   in  bunches  {staphylococci,  Fig.  68,  C) ;    in  masses  {zooglea),  etc. 

(3)  Bacilli.     A  single  one  is  called  a  bacillus.     These  are  rod-shaped 

bacteria,  their  length  being  greater  than  their 
breadth.  (See  Figs.  71,  74,  75,  78,  79,  80.) 
Some  varieties  are  only  slightly  longer  than 
broad,  thus  seeming  almost  like  those  of  class 
2.  In  general,  the  older  they  are,  the  longer  splenic  fever 
they  become.     Very  many  are   several  times  x  noo. 

as  long  as  they  are  broad.     It  is  important  to  ^'^-  7i- 

notice  whether  their  ends  are  rounded  or  square.  Some  show 
fine,  hair-like  processes  on  their  outside.  Some  have  bulging 
ends.  (See  Fig.  78.)  Most  bacteria  are  straight.  A  few  are 
curved.  Conspicuous  among  these  are  the  characteristic 
*' comma  bacilli  "  of  Asiatic  cholera.     (See  Fig.  75,  B.) 

(4)  Spirilla,  or  spiral-shaped  bacteria.      [To  designate  an  individual, 

the  word  *'  spirillum  "  is  used.]  This  is  the  shape  produced 
when  a  number  of  the  curved  comma  bacilli  of  cholera  (see  Fig. 
75,  A,  page  411)  are  joined  together  end  to  end,  as  occurs  under 
certain  conditions  of  their  culture.  There  are  several  varieties 
of  spiral  forms  ;  but,  by  their  microscopic  appearances  and 
by  culture  methods,  the  others  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
harmful  kind  that  is  associated  with  Asiatic  cholera. 

(5)  Spores  occur  in  many  kinds  of  bacilli  as  round  or  oval  appearances 

(see  the  dots  in  Fig.  71),  often  with  enlargement.  Spores  ap- 
pear to  have  a  relatively  resistant  membrane  about  them  ;  for 
they  stain  much  less  readily  than  the  simple  bacterial  forms, 
when  the  usual  aniline  pigments  are    employed    for    coloring 


V^ 


CULTURE    METHODS 


381 


them.  Spores  refract  light  strongly  and  are  recognized  under 
the  microscope  as  rather  brightly  shimmering  round  or  oval 
dots  inside  of  the  bacilli.  At  times,  also,  they  can  be  seen  in 
quantities  by  themselves  when  the  bacillus  that  has  held  them 
is  dead  and  wasted. 

Spores  are   capable  of  developing  into  bacteria  like  those 
from  which   they   originated.      The    importance   of   these,  or 
rather  of  the  forms  that  exist  within  bacilli  {e7idospo7-es\  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  spore-bearing  forms  of  bacteria  are  more 
resistant  (than  ordinary  kinds)  to  various  disinfectant  agents. 
Bacteria  thrive  best  in  organic  fluids,  notably  in  beef  broth,  in 
prepared  blood  serum  and  in  milk.     They  also  grow  luxuriantly  upon 
the  surfaces  of  meat  and  various  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances. 

Potato  surfaces  are  a  very  important  means  of  cultivating 
most  kinds  of  bacteria.  After  a  bit  of  potato  is  cleaned,  it 
is  put  into  a  broad  test-tube  (with  cotton  at  the  bottom  to 
hold  moisture).  Then  the  top  is  plugged  with  cotton. 
(See  Fig.  72,  from  Emmerich  and  Trillich.) 

This  tube  is  then  steamed  for  more  than  an  hour  to  kill 
the  hardy  bacteria  of  the  soil  that  are  with  all  potatoes. 
It  is  usually  necessary  to  steam  the  tube  again  within  the 
next  day.  All  the  germs  of  any  kind  that  may  be  there 
are  thus  killed.  The  cotton  plug  permits  air  to  pass,  but 
allows  no  microorganisms  to  get  through  into  the  tube,  at 
least  till  after  several  weeks,  if  it  be  kept  quite  dry. 

If  we  then  carefully  touch  the  potato  surface  with  only 
one  kind  of  bacteria,  that  kind  alone  will  grow  there.  For 
the  purpose  of  introducing  only  the  desired  kind,  we  use  a 
piece  of  platinum  wire  less  than  two  inches  long,  and  fixed 
in  a  glass  rod  seven  inches  long.  This  wire  must  have  just 
been  passed  through  a  flame  (and  allowed  to  cool).  The 
flame  destroys  all  life  that  may  have  been  on  the  wire.  The 
above-described  potato  cultures  (especially  if  slightly  acid) 
will  even  grow  the  tubercle  bacilli. 

If  we  solidify  beef  broth  by  the  addition  of  about  one- 
tenth  its  weight   of   gelatine  or  considerably  less  of  other 
cohesive  substance  (such  as  agar  or  Iceland  moss)  we  secure      -^^^^**^ 
thereby  an  excellent  solid  substance  {nutrient  gelatine)  for 
the  growing  of  bacteria.     The  combination  of  beef-tea  and  gelatine, 
made  neutral,  filtered  clear  and  sterilized  by  steaming,  affords  the  most 
useful  of  all  means  for  isolating \SiUons  kinds  of  ordinary  bacteria.    The 


382 


BACTERIA    AND    DISEASE 


bacilli  of  tuberculosis  and  some  others  will  not  grow  on  this.  For  such 
kinds,  stiffened  blood  serum  or  agar  jelly  with  glycerine  usually  suffices. 
Some  kinds  grow  best  when  air  is  excluded.     (See  next  page.) 

Into  a  test-tube  of  sterilized  nutrient  gelatine  (when 
softened)  we  introduce,  by  a  sterilized  platinum  wire  or 
otherwise,  a  minute  drop  or  particle  of  whatever  we  wish  to 
test.  A  drop  of  this  softened  gelatine  may  be  still  further 
diluted  by  adding  it  to  another  tube  of  gelatine  and  then 
even  still  further  diluted  if  desired.  The  gelatine  is  next 
poured  upon  cool  plates  or  shallow  dishes  of  glass  that  have 
previously  been  sterilized  by  heat.  This  fluid  gelatine,  with 
whatever  bacteria  we  have  introduced,  is  there  allowed  to 
cool  and  thus  to  become  solidified.  All  care  is  taken  to 
prevent  the  entrance  of  germs  of  any  kind  from  the  air. 

Each  of  the  single  bacteria  is  thus  more  or  less  isolated 
in  the  gelatine.  This  ''  culture  medium  "  proves  very  nutri- 
tious for  bacteria  (because  of  the  beef-juice  and  other 
organic  matters  present).  Hence  it  enables  the  microscopic 
individual  germ  to  multiply  (within  two  or  more  days)  so  as 
to  make  distinguishable  dots,  spots,  etc.,  of  various  peculiar 
appearances  and  colors  and  containing  perhaps  millions  of 
single  bacteria.  These  are  called  colonies.  Those  charac- 
teristic of  cholera  are   represented  in   Figs.  76  and  'j6a  on 

a^^m^    page  411. 
^^S^        From   a  separate  (isolated)  one  of  these 
i^ffl     colonies,  we  get  a  pU7-e  culture  by  carefully 
touching  our   sterilized   platinum  wire  to  it 
and  then  touching  that  to  a  protected  potato 
-US       iPl    surface  as  shown  in  Fig.  72.     If  we  similarly 
|i|p        rtii     run  the  needle  (with  a  few  of  the  bacteria 
tffllOiiil       ftiiyi    on  it   as  seed,  so  to  speak)  into  some  of  our 
stiffened  (sterile)  nutrient  gelatine  that  is  in 
the  lower  part  of  a  test-tube  as  shown  by 
in   the  middle  of  the  lower  half  of  Fig.  73 


Fig.  73. 

the  dark  lines 


(from  Hueppe),  the  bacteria  introduced  multiply  there.     In 


CONDITIONS    OF    BACTERIAL    EXISTENCE  ;^S^ 

that  figure,  the  gelatine  in  the  right-hand  tube  is  represented 
as  liquefied  by  the  vital  activity  of  the  bacteria  introduced. 
In  the  left-hand  tube,  the  gelatine  is  not  at  all  liquefied. 
The  appearances  differ  according  to  the  variety  of  bacteria 
and  afford  an  important  means  of  recognizing  different 
kinds.  Those  characteristic  of  cholera  are  given  in  Fig. 
77,  page  411. 

The  harmful  bacteria  are  usually  by  far  the  most  delicate 
as  regards  their  necessary  food  and  other  conditions  of  sub- 
sistence. Many  of  the  harmless  varieties  can  increase  and 
thrive  upon  a  very  scanty  food  supply.  Being  hardier,  as  a 
rule,  the  ordinary  bacteria  that  produce  decomposition  live 
where  many  of  the  disease-producing  kinds  perish  from 
lack  of  food  or  of  other  favoring  conditions. 

There  is  also  more  or  less  sfn/e  among  bacteria.  It  is 
found  that  certain  very  harmful  varieties,  such  as  for 
instance  the  germs  of  typhoid  and  probably  those  of  chol- 
era, do  not  long  survive  when  they  have  entered  a  foul 
sewer  or  cesspool  or  when  they  are  diffused  through  water 
abounding  in  bacteria  of  various  kinds.  When  in  pure 
water  or  otherwise  free  from  any  special  destructive  influ- 
ence, these  pernicious  varieties  can  live  longer  than  when 
antagonistic  bacteria  (or  suppressive  chemical  or  physical 
agencies)  are  acting  upon  them. 

Some  bacteria  grow  either  with  or  without  air  being  pres- 
ent. A  number  thrive  only  when  little  or  no  oxygen  is 
present.  They  are  called  anaerobic  bacteria.  Some  of  these 
cause  fermentative  processes  (somewhat  as  yeasts  do).  All 
varieties  that  live  without  air,  seem  to  need  (as  nutriment) 
grape-sugar  or  other  food  substances  that  yield  up  a  little 
oxygen.  Numerous  bacteria  partake  of  part  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  above.  The  great  majority  of  bacteria  are 
classed  as  aerobic — which  means  that  they  cannot  develop 
except  in  the  presence  of  the  ordinary,  oxygen-bearing  air. 

Bacteria  thrive  best  in  darkness  or  in  the  absence  of 


384  BACTERIA    AND    DISEASE 

Strong  daylight.  Light  restricts  or  destroys,  after  a  while, 
most  all  of  the  disease-producing  varieties  if  abundant  fresh 
air  also  be  present.  Direct  sunlight  acting  upon  bacteria 
exposed  to  fresh  air,  destroys  them  (or  at  least  the  common 
disease-producing  ones)  in  a  few  hours  or  days.  Its  health- 
ful influence  is  therefore  to  be  employed  in  houses,  on  cloth- 
ing and  especially  upon  all  objects  and  places  where  infec- 
tion may  have  entered.  The  great  hygienic  value  of  sunlight 
and  fresh  air  merits  repeated  emphasis. 

When  moisture  is  absent,  bacteria  do  not  multiply  and 
cause  decomposition  or  disease.  Some  bacteria  perish 
upon  drying.  The  cholera  bacilli,  for  instance,  are  very 
sensitive  to  dryness.  Yet  they  are  less  so  than  Koch  at 
first  stated. 

Very  many  bacteria  can  remain  alive  in  our  severest  cold 
weather.  The  ice  and  snow  of  our  dirty  streets  abound  at 
times  in  living  bacteria.  The  freezing  temperature  keeps 
them  from  increasing  ;  accordingly,  if  that  degree  of  cold 
(or  nearly  that)  be  continued  without  intermission,  it  pre- 
vents decomposition  and  the  other  effects  of  microorganic 
life.  When  such  cold  lessens,  the  vitality  of  the  bacteria 
may  become  renewed.  Certain  varieties  appear  to  thrive 
at  a  temperature  only  a  few  degrees  above  the  freezing 
point.  As  a  rule,  bacteria  flourish  best  at  or  near  the  nor- 
mal temperature  of  the  human  body  (98.6°  F.). 

When  the  temperature  is  raised  somewhat,  certain  bac- 
teria succumb.  Mild  heat  weakens  them  in  many  cases 
and  reduces  their  virulence.  A  temperature  above  140°  F., 
if  maintained  for  an  hour  or  more,  destroys  many,  but  not 
all,  of  the  harmful  varieties.  In  order  to  be  certain  that 
all  are  killed,  a  higher  heat  is  necessary,  as  will  be  explained 
later.  Moist  heat,  as  of  hot  water  or  steam,  is  more  de- 
structive of  microorganic  life  than  is  dry  heat,  both  kinds 
being  of  the  same  given  temperature. 

Disease-producing  bacteria  cannot  remain  alive  in  water 


HIGH    HEAT    KILLS    BACTERIA  385 

kept  at  the  boiling  temperature  for  ten  minutes.  This  state- 
ment comprehends  all  varieties,  even  the  spore-bearing  forms 
of  splenic  fever  (anthrax)  bacilli.  The  majority  will  perish 
long  before  the  water,  in  which  they  chance  to  be  heated, 
has  reached  the  boiling  temperature.  Momentary  heating 
in  water  or  milk  at  the  boiling  point  kills  the  bacilli  of 
tuberculosis. 

Yersin  has  shown  that  a  temperature  of  from  i6o°  to  175° 
F.  quite  surely  kills  the  germs  of  tuberculosis  if  the  heat  be 
kept  up  for  ten  minutes.  Forster  has  recently  demonstrated 
that  moist  heat  at  140°  F.,  if  maintained  for  one  hour,  de- 
stroys all  tuberculosis  germs  that  may  be  in  expectorations 
or  in  milk  treated  by  this  degree  of  heat.  The  bacilli  of 
cholera  and  typhoid  are  still  more  sensitive  to  heat.  These 
facts  are  mentioned  as  being  of  importance  in  explaining 
the  great  practical  value  of  Pasteurization. 

Pasteurization  consists  in  the  partial  or  complete  sterili- 
zation of  a  liquid  by  means  of  heating  it  to  a  temperature 
considerably  below  that  of  boiling  water.  A  temperature  of 
from  158°  to  176°  F.  is  usually  employed.  After  this  heat- 
ing, the  fluid  is  rapidly  cooled  to  54°  F.  or  still  lower. 
This  coohng  is  to  insure  that  no  considerable  increase,  if 
any,  can  take  place  among  the  hardier  decomposition  bacte- 
ria that  may  have  withstood  this  heating.  The  heat,  how- 
ever, can  be  relied  upon  to  have  killed  such  disease  germs 
as  might  otherwise  be  present. 

Milk  of  doubtful  origin,  for  instance,  is  by  this  process 
rendered  fit  for  immediate  use,  and  yet  does  not  suffer  the 
coagulative,  disintegrative  and  other  undesirable  changes 
that  occur  when  it  is  heated  to  a  higher  temperature.  It  is 
well,  however,  for  those  who  are  not  especially  skilled,  to 
beware  of  using  too  low  a  heat  for  the  purpose  of  destroying 
disease  germs. 

Heat,  therefore,  especially  when  moist,  is  a  most  valuable 
means  of  destroying  all  microorganic  life.  Yet  in  utilizing 
25 


386  BACTERIA    AND    DISEASE 

this  fact  for  annihilating  the  germs  of  infectious  disease  by 
employing  this  agent  in  order  to  disinfect  them,  the  number 
of  minutes  allowed  for  effectual  action  of  the  heat  is  to  be 
counted  only  from  the  time  when  a  suitable  degree  of  high 
heat  shall  have  penetrated  to  even  the  remotest  parts  of 
the  garment  or  other  infected  object. 

Steam-heat  used  in  a  disinfecting  apparatus,  as  explained 
in  the  pages  treating  of  Disinfection,  must  accordingly  be 
maintained  for  from  ten  to  thirty  minutes.  Yet  infected 
cloth  that  is  kept  in  boiling  (or  even  hot)  water  for  a  much 
shorter  time  will  probably  be  found  to  have  no  living  dis- 
ease germs  upon  it.  The  same  principle,  that  adequate  heat 
must  penetrate  to  the  remotest  and  innermost  parts  in  order 
to  be  effective,  has  been  emphasized  in  speaking  of  cooking 
food.     (See  pages  221  and  254.) 

Chemical  agents  are,  to  a  very  varying  extent,  effective 
in  destroying  or  influencing  the  activity  of  bacteria.  Unlike 
moulds,  bacteria  and  amoebae  do  not  thrive  when  weak  acid 
is  present.  Strong  acids  destroy  all  life.  Sulphuric  acid 
is  considerably  more  potent  than  hydrochloric  acid  in  this 
respect.  Yet  either  of  them,  if  present  in  the  strength  of  i 
part  to  400  parts  of  water,  will  restrict  the  activity  of  any 
of  the  germs  of  serious  disease. 

To  effect  rapid  destruction  of  bacteria,  the  acids  must  be 
quite  strong.  Thus,  either  sulphuric  acid  or  hydrochloric 
acid  kills  the  germs  of  suppuration,  of  wound  infection  or  of 
erysipelas  in  five  minutes  if  those  microorganisms  be  for 
that  time  exposed  to  contact  with  either  of  these  acids  of 
the  strength  of  i  part  in  10  parts  of  water.  One-tenth  of 
that  strength  suffices  to  kill  the  bacilli  of  cholera,  typhoid 
fever  and  splenic  fever  in  the  same  time. 

Other  acids  differ  greatly  in  their  efficacy  as  destroyers 
of  bacteria.  Carbolic  acid  is  frequently  used  ;  for  it  does 
not  corrode  steel  and  other  metals  to  any  extent,  and  its 
odor  and  taste  tend  somewhat  to  prevent  accidental  poison- 


CHEMICALS    KILL    BACTERIA  387 

ing  from  its  use.  If  a  solution  of  this  be  added  to  an  equal 
bulk  of  typhoid  discharges,  it  must  have  a  strength  of  five 
per  cent.  A  strength  of  at  least  two  per  cent,  is  required  in 
order  to  destroy  the  bacilli  of  typhoid  fever  in  five  minutes. 
Cholera  germs  are  found  to  be  four  times  as  sensitive  as  this. 
Typhoid  bacilli  seem  comparatively  sensitive  to  ammonia. 

For  the  various  round  bacteria  {cocci)  of  septic  and  in- 
fective nature  (causing  surgical  and  other  wound  complica- 
tions) carbolic  acid  solutions  need  to  have  a  strength  not 
much,  if  any,  less  than  two  per  cent.  When  this  acid  is 
of  inferior  quality,  the  strength  must  be  greater.  Loeffler's 
experiments  on  diphtheria  showed  that  a  two  per  cent,  solu- 
tion of  carbolic  acid  in  water  was  not  sure  to  kill  the  char- 
acteristic bacilli  of  diphtheria  instantly.  When,  however, 
one-third  of  the  water  of  such  a  solution  is  replaced  by 
alcohol,  a  two  per  cent,  solution  is  quite  capable  of  serving 
for  this  purpose. 

Salicylic  acid  is  another  efficient  disinfectant  acid.  A 
solution  of  I  part  of  this  in  i,ooo  parts  of  water  kills  the 
bacteria  of  suppuration  and  of  disease  processes  in  general 
within  five  minutes.  Although  quite  valuable  against  various 
other  bacteria,  it  is  not  so  against  all.  Boric  acid  is  less 
powerful  as  a  complete  strong  disinfectant.  Yet  in  one  per 
cent,  solution,  it  prevents  the  development  of  bacteria.  For 
soaking  the  nipples  of  nursing  bottles,  a  three  per  cent,  solu- 
tion is  used.  Boi^ax  is  only  one-third  as  strong.  Creosote 
is  an  efficient,  though  costly,  disinfectant.  If  a  solution  of 
this  have  a  strength  of  i  to  500,  it  will  destroy,  in  five  min- 
utes, the  germs  of  cholera,  typhoid  and  some  other  diseases 
when  they  are  exposed  to  it.  Chloride  of  lime  and  quicklime 
are  also  very  useful  as  disinfectants  and  will  be  spoken  of  in 
treating  of  Disinfection.     Ammonia  is  a  weak  disinfectant. 

Mercury,  in  the  form  of  its  soluble  salts,  deserves  espe- 
cial mention  more  than  any  of  the  numerous  other  chemicals 
used.     It  combines  cheapness  and  great  potency.     When- 


388  BACTERIA    AND    DISEASE 

ever  such  salts  as  either  corrosive  sublimate  or  cyanide  of 
)nercu7'y  be  used,  the  label  "  Poison  "  must  invariably  be 
affixed  ;  for  these  valuable  disinfectants  are  dangerous  if 
carelessly  handled. 

To  have  their  fullest  disinfectant  effects,  these  mercury 
salts  should  be  used  in  the  strength  of  one-tenth  of  one  per 
cent,  (one-half  grain  to  one  ounce).  If  they  be  much  dilu- 
ted, as  for  eye-washes,  the  danger  of  poisoning  may  be 
absent.  Thus,  when  corrosive  sublimate  is  used  in  the 
strength  of  i  to  20,000,  an  eight-ounce  bottle  of  the  solution 
contains  about  one-fifth  grain  of  the  salt,  or  less  than  a 
poisonous  dose.  It  is  well,  however,  to  add  a  little  harm- 
less  coloring  matter  to  all  such  solutions  and  to  label  them 
carefully  in  order  that  they  be  not  mistaken  for  water. 

Cotton-wool  and  various  dense,  fine  fabrics,  when  no 
moisture  is  present,  can  for  a  varying  length  of  time  hold 
back  bacteria.  Yet  air  can  pass  through.  This  property  is 
often  utilized  (in  addition  to  the  laboratory  use  mentioned 
on  page  381)  for  purifying  air  by  mechanically  filtering  out 
its  fine  dust  and  germs.  If  considerable  pressure  be  used, 
bacteria  may  readily  be  driven  through  this  cotton.  Screens 
used  for  filtering  air  in  this  way  work  more  effectively  when 
w^ater  flows  over  them  as  indicated  on  page  205,  or  when 
sprays  are  skilfully  used,  since  bacteria  do  not  fly  off  from 
surfaces  that  are  thoroughly  moist. 

Any  very  fine  substance  can  mechanically  restrict  bac- 
teria. Thus,  porous  soil,  porous  baked  clay,  infusorial 
earth,  asbestos  and  various  membranes,  while  allowing  the 
passage  of  air  or  water  and  other  fluids,  will  more  or  less 
completely  hold  back  bacteria,  for  a  time  at  least.  Imper- 
meable layers  of  any  substance  will  not  allow  them  to  pass. 
Fat  or  oil  obstructs  their  passage. 

Bacteria  occur  almost  everywhere.  Innumerable 
millions  of  bacteria  are  in  the  upper  layers  of  the  ground, 
also  in  rivers  and  other  waters.     They  abound  in  the  air, 


BACTERIA    AS    DESTROYERS  389 

especially  when  it  contains  much  unclean  dust.  Nearly 
every  ordinary  object  has  them  upon  it  and  at  times  in  its 
substance.  The  character  of  those  present  in  any  case  de- 
pends to  a  varying  extent  upon  the  nature  of  the  object 
considered  and  what  it  has  last  been  in  contact  with. 

Of  all  bacteria  that  are  of  hygienic  interest,  the  great 
majority  tend  to  produce  either  oxidation  or  nitrification.  It 
has  been  indicated,  in  speaking  of  sewage,  that,  when  rightly 
managed,  bacteria  are  invaluable  scavengers  and  the  natural 
agents  for  the  resolution  of  waste  organic  matters  into  their 
elements.  Without  microorganisms,  decomposition  of  such 
substances  cannot  take  place.  Any  substance  that  is  wholly 
without  bacteria  (or  related  microorganisms,  such  as  yeasts 
and  moulds)  cannot  putrefy  or  ferment.  In  some  cases, 
several  varieties  of  microorganisms  work  together  to  effect 
these  processes. 

Only  very  few  kinds  of  bacteria  are  known  to  act  upon 
starch.  Yet  many  varieties  can  cause  milk  to  "  change," 
organic  acids  and  carbonic  acid  being  produced  from  the 
sugar  of  the  milk.  Various  bacteria,  that  destroy  albumi- 
nous substances  and  produce  lower  chemical  compounds  by 
the  more  or  less  complex  process  of  decay,  give  off  unpleas- 
ant gases  in  this  process.  This  explains  the  odor  noticed 
when  the  organic  matter  of  the  teeth  or  of  any  other  part  of 
the  body  is  undergoing  decomposition.  Without  bacteria, 
this  decay  does  not  take  place. 

The  manifestation  of  bacterial  activity  with  the  usual  pro- 
duction of  unpleasant  odors  may  be  upon  the  outer  surface 
of  the  body  and  especially  in  the  folds  of  the  skin,  or  it  may 
take  place  within  the  body.  If  food  be  decomposing  or 
fermenting  in  the  intestine,  gases  are  then  given  off,  mani- 
festing themselves  usually  as  flatulency. 

Because  most  bacteria  are  apparently  harmless,  it  is  not 
wise  to  reason  that  their  presence  in  the  digestive  tract  is 
desirable.     The    fewer  living  bacteria  our  food  and  drink 


390  BACTERIA    AND    DISEASE 

contain,  the  better  for  us.  The  digestive  potency  of  bac- 
teria is  very  trivial  compared  with  that  of  the  healthy 
digestive  juices.  These  microorganisms  produce  indol, 
skatol^  fat  acids  and  other  undesirable  and  absorbable 
gaseous  products  which  can  cause  disturbance  when  indi- 
gestible foods  linger  to  ferment  in  the  digestive  tract. 

Ptomaines,  leucomaines,  toxines,  etc.,  are  organic 
chemical  (alkaloidal)  bases  produced  by  the  action  of  some 
bacteria  acting  upon  and  in  various  albuminous  matters. 
Occasional  cases  of  serious  poisoning  occur  when  these 
highly  poisonous  substances  chance  to  have  developed  in 
milk  that  is  used  in  its  raw  state  or  employed  for  making 
ice-cream.  With  cheese,  meat  and  sausages,  such  poisons 
may  also  enter  the  system  and  cause  poisoning  as  manifested 
by  vomiting  and  purging  with  irritation  of  the  stomach  and 
bowels  and  also  by  various  intoxication  symptoms. 

Most  bacteria  are  harmless.  The  immense  majority 
of  all  microorganisms  that  are  upon  and  about  us  are  pre- 
sumably not  harmful  so  far  as  their  capacity  for  distinct  in- 
jury to  the  health  of  human  beings  is  concerned.  Most  of 
them  thrive  only  upon  dead  organic  matter.  These  are 
called  putrefactive  (or  saprophytic)  bacteria.  Some  varieties 
of  disease  bacteria  thrive  only  in  living  animals  and  are  called 
parasitic.  A  few  seem  to  flourish  only  in  human  beings, 
just  as  other  kinds  are  limited  to  the  tissues  of  certain 
species  of  lower  animals.  Many  of  the  varieties  of  bacteria 
that  produce  disease  can  thrive  both  in  living  tissues  and 
also  upon  dead  organic  matter.  Such  bacteria  are  classed 
as  optional  parasites. 

The  bacteria  that  can  cause  disease,  when  in  their 
parasitic  activity  they  have  entered  into  the  system  of  a 
human  being  or  a  lower  animal,  must  usually  be  present  in 
considerable  numbers  in  order  to  cause  appreciable  symp- 
toms. If  a  small  number  of  the  bacilli  of  typhoid,  of  tuber- 
culosis, of  cholera,  etc.,  enter  with  water,  milk  or  otherwise 


DISEASE    BACTERIA 


39^ 


into  the  average  healthy  human  stomach,  for  instance,  they 
are  presumably  destroyed  there.  This  is  because  bacteria 
do  not  thrive  in  the  presence  of  any  considerable  amount  of 
acid  such  as  is  contained  in  the  normal  stomach  juice. 
They  usually  require  neutral  or  mildly  alkaline  substances 
for  maintaining  their  vitality  and  for  growing. 

If,  however,  there  be  a  slight  catarrh  or  other  injury  of 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  or  if  a 
similar  unhealthy  condition  exist  upon  the  breathing  surface 
of  the  lungs,  such  a  condition  may  allow  harmful  bacteria  to 
enter  the  system.  They  can  also  enter  readily  by  wounds 
upon  the  skin  or  upon  other  surfaces.  It  is  not  probable 
that  they  enter  through  sound  surfaces  to  any  notable 
extent. 

When  only  a  few  bacteria  get  into  the  system,  they  are 
probably  destroyed  by  the  serum  of  the  blood  and  by  other 
body  elements.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  very  many  enter, 
they  are  liable  to  increase  and  cause  disease,  especially  when 
the  system  is  "  run  down "  or  in  an  enfeebled  condition. 
In  case  the  person  invaded  is  exceedingly  susceptible  and 
there  are  very  many  harmful  bacteria  present,  they  over- 
whelm and  conquer  the  body  forces. 

Death  can  then  result  if  the  microorganisms  be  virulent 
and  of  a  fatal  kind,  while  at  the  same  time  the  system 
invaded  is  unable  to  resist.  The  fatal  issue  is  preceded  by 
symptoms  more  or  less  characteristic  of  the  disease  to  which 
the  particular  microorganisms  are  peculiar.  In  most  cases, 
the  invading  bacteria  produce  illness  of  varying  seriousness, 
but  not  fatal.  Deteriorated  general  health,  as  above  said, 
renders  the  system  less  capable  of  resisting  these  parasitic 
germs  of  disease.  The  especial  importance  of  sound  health, 
when  one  is  exposed  to  infection,  is  therefore  obvious. 

It  is  not  the  mere  presence  of  even  very  large  numbers  of 
bacteria  that  causes  the  severe  symptoms  which  result  in 
case  an  infectious  disease   has   invaded  the  system.      The 


392  BACTERIA    AND    DISEASE 

cause  of  the  symptoms  lies  rather  in  the  noxious  influence 
of  various  organic  poisons  that  these  harmful  bacteria 
produce  when  they  are  living  in  and  upon  the  body  tissues. 
In  diphtheria,  for  instance,  the  peculiar  bacilli  that  cause 
the  disease  are  localized  usually  in  the  outer  layers  of  the 
tissues  of  the  throat  and  are  not  often  found  at  all  in  the 
blood.  Yet  the  poison,  that  these  microorganisms  there 
produce,  enters  the  system  and  causes  very  serious  general 
and  special  symptoms,  including  the  unique  paralysis  of 
diphtheria. 

These  poisons  can  be  isolated  chemically  from  cultures 
of  some  kinds  of  bacteria.  They  can  then  produce  the 
symptoms  pecuhar  to  the  bacteria  from  which  they  were 
derived.  If  preserved  in  glycerine,  oil  or  in  other  suitable 
way,  they  can  retain  their  full  virulence  for  years. 

The  exact  character  of  the  peculiar  poisons  produced  by 
disease  bacteria  in  a  susceptible,  infected  subject  is  as  yet 
only  partially  known.  They  appear  to  vary  somewhat  with 
the  degree  of  vitality  of  the  bacteria  and  with  the  nature  of 
the  "  soil "  in  which  they  grow — that  is,  in  which  of  the 
organs  of  the  body  the  harmful  bacteria  are  located.  It  is 
assumed  that  the  varying  severity  of  different  cases  of  the 
same  disease  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  fluctuating  inten- 
sity of  virulent  capacity  on  the  part  of  the  causative  germs. 

Bacteria  become  weakened  or  "  attenuated  "  at  times,  but 
can  renew  their  vigor  under  favorable  conditions.  Thus, 
cholera  bacilli  are  often  found  to  attack  the  first  case  or 
cases,  occurring  in  an  epidemic,  with  less  severity  than  sub- 
sequent ones  manifest.  Yet  the  bacilli  from  one  of  the 
milder  cases  (called  cholerine^  are  capable  of  inducing  the 
most  malignant  form  of  cholera  in  another  person.  In 
diphtheria  and  other  diseases  the  most  virulent  attack  can 
at  times  result  upon  infection  from  a  mild  case. 

Animals  and  also  human  beings  differ  greatly  in  their 
susceptibility  to  the  influence  of  disease  germs.     Cholera, 


LIABILITY    TO    INFECTION  393 

typhoid  fever  and  a  few  other  diseases  are  very  dangerous 
for  human  beings,  yet  they  are  not  so  for  any  animals.  On 
the  other  hand,  some  diseases  attack  only  certain  animals 
and  not  mankind  at  all.  Tuberculosis,  which  kills  a  large 
percentage  of  the  human  race,  is  also  exceedingly  fatal  to 
cattle  and  considerably  so  to  swine.  The  latest  researches 
tend  to  establish  the  fact  that  the  tuberculosis  of  poultry  is 
due  to  the  same  cause  as  in  human  beings.  Sheep  are  not 
very  susceptible  to  this  disease,  and  goats  almost  never  have 
it.  Hence  mutton  and  goat's  milk  (and  flesh)  are  not  so 
liable,  as  pork,  beef  and  cow's  milk,  to  convey  the  infection 
of  tuberculosis. 

Negroes  are  comparatively  insusceptible  to  yellow  fever. 
Malaria  affects  them  much  less  than  it  does  white  people. 
Syphilis  is  also  a  less  severe  disease  among  negroes.  On 
the  other  hand,  they  are  more  liable  to  die  if  attacked  by 
pneumonia  or  other  infectious  lung  diseases.  Various  races 
and  individuals  among  human  beings  and  lower  animals  are 
less  liable  to  become  infected  than  are  others. 

The  cause  of  the  more  or  less  complete  immunity 
noticed  in  different  races  and  individuals  has  been  dis- 
cussed and  disputed  over  in  very  many  and  very  volumi- 
nous monographs.  '  But  no  general  agreement  has  yet  been 
reached.  To  sum  up  that  which  is  most  probable  out  of 
all  the  divergent  theories,  it  may  be  said  that  the  recog- 
nized immunity  appears  to  depend  chiefly  upon  some  chemi- 
cal condition  of  the  system,  which  condition  in  some  cases 
is  constant  and  permanent,  while  in  others  it  is  changeable 
and  fluctuating.  The  quality  of  the  blood  serum  seems  of 
great  importance  in  controlling  the  immunity.  Some  few 
regard  the  white  blood-cells  as  very  powerful  agents  in 
annihilating  disease  germs  that  may  enter  the  system  i^pha- 
gocyte  theory).  Such  may  be  the  case  in  a  limited  way.  Yet 
certain  kinds  of  disease  germs  can  multiply  even  within  the 
white  blood-cells. 


394  BACTERIA    AND    DISEASE 

Susceptibility  to  infectious  diseases  is  lessened  by  some 
conditions  and  increased  by  others.  Perfect  health  is  a 
valuable  means  of  strengthening  the  system  against  the 
invasion  of  disease.  Hunger  and  fatigue  make  one  gen- 
erally more  liable  to  receive  an  infection.  Various  chemi- 
cal substances,  usual  or  unusual,  that  may  be  present  in 
the  blood  influence  the  susceptibility  to  infection.  For  in- 
stance, the  presence,  in  the  system,  of  a  sufficient  amount 
of  quinine,  or  of  certain  substitutes  for  this  potent  drug,  is 
a  very  reliable  preventive  of  the  various  symptoms  of 
malaria. 

With  a  large  number  of  the  infectious  disorders,  it  is 
found  that  among  those  who  are  susceptible  to  a  certain 
disease,  and  hence  acquire  it  when  exposed  to  the  infection, 
a  second  attack  is  very  rare.  The  system,  in  the  case  of 
those  who  have  had  the  disease,  has  somehow  lost  its  liabil- 
ity to  receive  the  infection. 

Small-pox  is  one  of  these  diseases  which  a  person  very 
rarely  has  a  second  time.  With  this  particular  disease,  it  has 
for  many  hundred  years  been  recognized  in  the  Orient  that 
local  inoculation  with  matters  from  one  of  the  fresh  pustules 
of  small-pox  produces  a  very  mild  case  of  the  disease  which 
causes  the  person  thus  inoculated  to  be  freed  from  all  dan- 
ger of  a  subsequent  attack. 

Vaccination,  however,  is  a  great  improvement  over  this 
means  of  averting  very  serious  attacks  of  small-pox.  Nearly 
a  century  ago,  it  was  discovered  that  inoculation  of  a  cow 
with  human  small-pox  virus  produced,  on  the  animal,  a  very 
mild  pustular  disease,  said  also  to  have  occurred  independ- 
ently in  cattle  and  horses,  and  called  vaccinia  or  cow-pox. 
Taking  matter  from  one  of  these  fresh  cow-pox  pustules  and 
inoculating  human  beings  with  it,  it  was  found  by  Jenner 
that  people  thus  "vaccinated"  secured  immunity  from  dan- 
ger of  small-pox. 

In  nearly  all  cases,  this  immunity  continues  for  a  period 


PREVENTIVE  INOCULATION  395 

of  at  least  twelve  years  after  the  inoculation.     (See  page 

423.) 

Impressed  by  the  results  of  vaccination  against  small- pox, 
numerous  investigators  have  sought  similarly  to  find  equally 
efficacious  preventives  of  other  infectious  diseases.  Pas- 
teur's genius  enabled  liim  first  to  find  means  of  attenuating 
the  infectious  elements  of  various  diseases  such  as  e.  g.  rabies 
(canine  madness,  hydrophobia)  the  mortality  from  this  being 
reduced  fifty  times  or  more  by  use  of  the  "  attenuated  virus  " 
derived  from  a  series  of  inoculations  in  rabbits.  Against 
plague,  cholera  and  certain  other  diseases  the  method  has 
been  skilfully  elaborated  by  Haffkine  and  others,  so  that 
wholly  impartial  judges  acknowledge  the  merits  of  the 
methods.  Among  domestic  animals  an  immense  saving  of 
life  has  been  effected  by  Pasteur's  specific  inoculations  against 
splenic  fever  and  other  devastating  infections. 

Antitoxine  treatment  has  been  developed  more  or  less 
successfully  for  the  prevention  of  nearly  all  infectious  dis- 
eases, including  yellow  fever  and  suppurations.  It  is  akin  to 
the  Pasteur  method  ;  but  instead  of  employing  like  that  an 
attenuated  bacterial  poison  directly  or  a  local  infection  miti- 
gated by  preliminary  inoculations,  it  uses  antidotal  products 
evolved  by  the  cells  of  an  animal  especially  inoculated  with 
the  bacterial  products  of  a  given  disease.  It  was  early 
recognized  that  the  harmful  influence  of  disease  bacteria 
depended  on  toxines^  the  poisonous  substances  produced  by 
bacteria  in  their  growth;  and  when  this  occurred  in  the  body 
the  result  was  the  fever,  weakness  and  peculiar  symptoms 
due  to  the  specific  bacteria.  Later  it  was  recognized  that, 
in  the  blood  of  those  who  withstood  a  poisoning  by  bacteria 
antidotes  occur  in  the  form  of  the  so-called  antitoxmes.  It 
was  shown  that  the  organism  immune  against  certain  dis- 
eases, e.  g.  cholera  or  typhoid,  contains  antidotal  substances 
capable  of  destroying  and  dissolving  up  the  bacteria  of  these 
diseases.     Diphtheria  is,  among  us,  the  most  notable  of  the 


39^  BACTERIA    AND    DISEASE 

diseases  alleviated  by  such  isopatJiic  treatment  (to  use  Beh- 
ring's  term).  Accordingly  the  preparation  of  the  specific 
remedy  may  be  explained  briefly,  since  other  curative  se- 
rums are  prepared  in  a  similar  way. 

Antidiphtherin.  This  remedy  is  derived  from  the  blood 
serum  of  strong,  healthy  horses.  In  a  hygienically  clean 
stable,  under  expert  inspection,  each  horse  receives  an  injec- 
tion of  abou  ICC.  of  a  filtered,  strong,  alkaline  bouillon  cul- 
ture (toxine)  of  pure  diphtheria  bacilli,  its  strength  being 
determined  from  its  virulency  upon  guinea-pigs.  Every 
week  or  so  a  larger  amount  is  carefully  injected.  After 
about  twelve  weeks,  a  large  amount  of  the  remedial  serum 
is  obtained  by  bleeding  antisepiically.  A  preservative  may 
be  added.  Guinea-pigs  serve  for  testing  the  potency  of  the 
serum.  Its  strength  is  expressed  in  '*  units,"  one  unit  be- 
ing defined  as  ten  times  the  quantity  of  serum  needed  for 
immunizing  a  250  gramme  guinea-pig  that  has  received  sub- 
cutaneously  ten  times  as  much  of  the  toxine  as  would  kill  it 
if  not  immunized.  The  stronger  and  purer  the  serum  the 
better.  It  is  usually  dispensed  in  small  phials.  Each  c.c. 
ought  to  represent  from  100  to  500  units.  It  is  administered 
subcutaneously  in  doses  of  from  1000  to  3000  (or  more) 
units,  according  to  the  case.  The  more  promptly  it  is  given, 
the  more  effective  it  is.  One-tenth  the  curative  dose  suffices 
to  protect  for  from  three  to  eight  weeks  against  the  infection. 

Most  physicians  regard  this  treatment  as  of  great  value 
both  for  curing  and  preventing  diphtheria.  Yet  a  few  skilled 
observers  of  large  experience  discredit  it  and  even  claim 
that  it  does  more  harm  than  good,  irrespective  of  the  rashes 
and  other  effects  ascribable  to  the  use  of  serum  from  the 
horse,  alleging  that  the  decreased  mortality  and  milder  symp- 
toms generally  reported  by  those  using  antidiphtherin  are 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  disease  has  in  the  last  decade 
been  of  a  less  severe  type  than  formerly.  Yet  statistics  are 
strongly  in  favor  of  the  prompt  use  of  this  preventive  serum 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

Infectious  diseases  unquestionably  cause  more  than  a 
third  of  all  deaths.  A  much  larger  proportion  than  a  third 
of  all  cases  of  more  or  less  serious  illness  would  be  averted 
if  ideal  hygienic  precautions  were  everywhere  adopted. 
Practically,  the  carrying  out  of  adequate  measures  to  pre- 
vent the  extension  of  communicable  diseases  is  not  always 
possible.  This  is  especially  because  of  the  fact  that  a  long 
period  of  teaching  is  necessary  before  the  immense  value  of 
such  healthful  measures  is  realized. 

The  progress  of  popular  education  in  the  all-important 
truths  of  sanitary  science  is  slow  ;  but  it  must  in  the  end 
effect  most  gratifying  benefits.  Without  receptivity  on  the 
part  of  those  whom  they  should  guide  in  matters  of  health, 
any  labors  of  physicians  and  other  scientific  teachers  and 
workers  can  achieve  only  very  limited  practical  results. 
Happily,  every  decade  shows  great  improvement  in  these 
respects. 

At  times  we  are  met  with  assertions  by  sciolists  who 
claim  that,  by  restricting  disease  and  prolonging  life  as  well 
as  making  it  more  comfortable  and  secure,  we  of  necessity 
interfere  with  natural  processes  and  perpetuate  the  weakly 
and  degenerate.  To  the  trained  scientific  observer,  the 
fallacy  of  such  arguments  is  very  obvious  in  the  light  of 
statistics  as  well  as  of  the  facts  of  history.  These  demon- 
strate the  unquestionable  supremacy  of  precisely  those 
races  and  nations  that,  if  not  especially  favored  by  nature, 
pay  most  attention  to  preventing  disease  and  improving  in 
every  way  the  welfare  of  their  people. 

Attention  must  also  be  directed  to  the  fact  that  infectious 


398  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

diseases  do  not  attack  those  alone  whom  we  by  any  usual 
standard  can  class  as  weakly.  Small-pox,  typhoid  and 
yellow  fever,  for  instance,  do  not  inevitably  single  out  for 
their  invasion  the  races  and  individuals  that  are  least  worthy 
of  a  high  place  in  the  records  of  physical  prowess  or  mental 
achievement. 

Even  such  filth  diseases  as  typhus  and  cholera  have 
during  the  past  year  killed  people  of  the  highest  social  and 
intellectual  rank.  It  is  unwise  to  tolerate  the  diseases  of  de- 
graded people.  These  diseases  can  escape  from  their  usual 
barriers  and  become  diffused  everywhere  unless  a  proper 
guard  and  constant  warfare  be  maintained  against  them. 

Like  tubercular  consumption,  nearly  all  other  infectious 
diseases  may  invade  any  abode  from  that  of  the  greatest 
ruler  to  that  of  the  lowliest,  bringing  death  or  lasting 
enfeeblement. 

Death  is  not  all  that  is  to  be  feared  from  these  prevent- 
able diseases.  Even  if  recovery  take  place,  it  may  be  only 
partial :  the  impaired  health  that  follows  may  at  times 
be  worse  than  death. 

Furthermore,  the  time  wasted  in  disease  means  an  enor- 
mous economic  loss  to  the  commonwealth  when  disease 
interferes  with  the  activity  of  any  of  the  productive  classes 
of  the  population.  This  material  detriment,  to  the  commu- 
nity that  does  not  do  its  utmost  to  restrict  and  suppress 
preventable  diseases,  can  be  excessive. 

Comprehensive  and  accurate  statistics  make  it  appear  that  nearly 
three  weeks  (or,  say,  twenty  days)  is  the  duration  of  the  average  seri- 
ous ilhiess,  not  to  consider  any  subsequent  feebleness  and  lessened 
capacity  for  the  best  work  and  usefulness.  German  authorities  infer 
from  careful  study  that  thirty-four  cases  of  more  or  less  serious  illness 
occur  for  every  death  registered.  In  America,  the  number  is  probably 
greater  than  this.  Statistics  show  that  the  fever  death-rate  in  England 
is  at  present  not  much  more  than  one-third  of  what  it  was  there  twenty 
years  ago,  before  the  introduction  of  modern  methods  of  scientific 
cleanliness  and  hygienic  precaution. 


INFECTIOUS    DISEASES  399 

Not  to  take  advantage  of  such  overwhelmingly  significant  figures,  let 
it  be  supposed  that  in  the  case  of  a  given  population,  ordinary  efforts 
toward  the  restriction  of  communicable  diseases  bring  about  only  a 
limited  improvement.  Say  that,  for  instance,  to  borrow  the  illustra- 
tion of  Prausnitz,  in  a  laboring  population  of  100,000,  the  number  of 
deaths  from  all  such  diseases  is  lessened  by  only  one  per  thousand  of 
the  population.  This  means  that  100  fewer  deaths  occur  among  these 
producers  in  one  year. 

Accepting  the  above  postulates,  it  is  clear  that  even  the  small 
improvement  indicated  means  a  direct,  positive  gain  to  the  state  of 
68,000  days  of  productive  labor.  Allowing  only  $1.50  per  day  as  the 
value  of  this  labor  at  its  best,  and  omitting  all  consideration  of  the 
avoidance  of  outlay  for  attendance  and  supplies  which  would  have 
been  necessary  for  these  people  in  case  their  illness  had  not  been 
averted,  we  have  the  not  inconsiderable  saving  of  $102,000  per  year 
in  that  population  (of  100,000  workers). 

Besides  the  immediate,  economic  advantages,  there  must 
also  be  considered  the  increase  of  welfare  and  happiness 
among  those  dependent  upon  and  devoted  to  the  workers 
whose  liability  to  suffering  or  death  is  lessened  by  the  most 
intelligent  scientific  sanitation. 

The  study  of  various  civilizations,  and  of  peoples  who 
never  emerged  from  barbarism,  proves  that  the  lack  of 
intelligent  means  of  averting  preventable  diseases  has 
always  caused  incalculable  suffering  and  losses.  A  disre- 
gard of  measures  for  arresting  and  removing  avoidable  dan- 
gers* to  health  seems  always  to  have  impeded  the  pastoral, 
mercantile  and  industrial  advancements  which  are  the  pre- 
cursors of  all  civilized  progress. 

In  any  community,  a  valuable  feeling  of  confidence  is 
secured  when  all  are  assured  of  protection  by  adequate 
scientific  safeguards  against  the  invasion  of  infectious  dis- 
eases. The  dread  of  impending  epidemics  creates  a  disas- 
trous stagnation  of  commercial  activity  :  the  panic  resulting 
from  even  a  few  cases  of  a  dreaded  disease  may,  for  the  time 
being,  unnerve  or  at  least  disturb  nearly  everybody. 


400  INFECTIOUS    DISEASES 

General   Considerations 

Infectious  diseases  (often  called  zymotic  diseases)  are  ex- 
plained, in  the  preceding  pages,  as  being  attributable  to 
peculiar  poisonous  influences  that  have  entered  the  systems 
of  those  affected.  A  great  many  of  these  poisons  have  been 
demonstrated  to  be  due  to  vegetable  microorganisms,  usually 
bacteria.  A  number  of  the  infectious  diseases,  such  as 
smallpox,  dengue  fever,  scarlet  fever  and  syphilis,  have  not 
yet  been  shown  to  be  due  to  a  distinct  microorganic  caus^. 
Yet  they  are  so  much  like  the  other  infectious  diseases  in 
their  general  character,  that  they  are  classed  with  these.  It 
is  expected  that  definite  (but  now  unknown  or  very  imper- 
fectly understood)  microorganisms  will  eventually  be  shown 
to  be  necessary  elements  in  the  causation  of  each  of  these 
diseases. 

When  parasites  of  a  purely  animal  quality,  such  as  for 
example  either  the  itch-insect  or  the  trichifia  (see  page  223), 
cause  diseases,  some  authorities  choose  to  class  these 
arbitrarily  as  invasion  diseases  as  distinguished  from  the  in- 
fectious diseases  above  spoken  of  as  due  to  vegetable  para- 
sites. Malaria  and  some  forms  of  dyse?ttery  are  now  classed 
among  infectious  diseases.  They  are  presumably  due  to 
protozoa  or  ainoebce.  These  are  low  forms  of  (single-cellular) 
organisms  that  are  upon  the  border-line  between  animal  and 
vegetable  life. 

It  is  considered  that  a  disease  is  due  to  the  influence  of  a 
definite,  characteristic  microorganism  if  this  parasite  be  con- 
stantly present  in  all  cases  of  the  disease  in  question,  and 
no  other  microorganism  be  regularly  found  there.  The  cer- 
tainty is  strengthened  in  case  we  can  demonstrate  with  a 
given  kind  of  bacteria,  for  instance,  that  the  same  disease 
regularly  results  in  animals  that  have  been  inoculated  with 
these  microorganisms,  and  that  they  abound  in  the  tissues  of 
the  infected  animal. 

Miasm  is  an  ancient  term  which,  in  view  of  the  increased 


MIASM.       CONTAGION.       INCUBATION  40I 

accuracy  of  the  present  time,  means  less  than  formerly.  It 
served  to  indicate  a  vague,  gaseous  influence  pervading  the 
air,  and  which  was  assumed  to  be  very  potent  in  causing 
disease,  but  of  whose  nature  nothing  definite  was  known. 
Now  that  we  realize  the  great  importance  of  microorganisms 
as  causes  of  disease  and  feel  certain  that  these  in  some  form 
are  probably  operative  even  in  the  infectious  diseases  of 
whose  exact  causation  we  thus  far  know  little  or  nothing,  the 
word  "miasm"  is  of  less  precise  significance.  Some  of  the 
diseases  formerly  classed  as  miasmatic  (for  instance,  malaria 
and  typhoid  fever)  are  now  definitely  known  to  be  due  to 
microorganisms.  In  so  far  as  gases  vitiate  the  air  and  are 
liable  to  intoxicate  the  system,  they  are  to  be  regarded  as 
very  objectionable.  They  are  spoken  of  in  the  chapters  on 
Sewers,  Lighting  and  Occupation. 

Contagious  diseases  are  those  infectious  diseases  which 
are  conveyed  to  one  individual  from  another  who  has  the 
disease  or  is  recovering  from  it.  In  some  cases,  such  as 
hydrophobia  and  the  venereal  diseases,  there  must  presuma- 
bly be  immediate  contact  or  the  infective  matters  must  be 
quite  fresh.  In  others,  the  clothing  or  other  objects  that 
have  received  the  infection  may  retain  the  contagion  in  full 
potency  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  Diphtheria  is 
one  of  such  contagious  disorders.  Certain  contagious  dis- 
eases, like  small-pox  and  typhus  fever,  seem  much  more  com- 
municable than  others.  Yet  the  prevalent  views  of  their 
extreme  contagiousness  are  probably  exaggerated,  if  we  can 
judge  by  careful  studies  recently  made. 

Incubation  is  a  term  constantly  used  (in  speaking  of 
infectious  diseases)  to  indicate  the  development  (in  the 
body)  of  the  invading  bacteria  (or  other  cause  of  infection) 
together  with  the  accumulation  of  the  poisonous  products  of 
these.  It  covers  the  interval  beginning  with  the  entry  of 
these  causative  elements  into  the  body  and  ceasing  when 
their  harmful  power  has  become  manifested  by  producing 
26 


402  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

some  of  the  symptoms  of  the  special  infection.  The  time 
required,  ox  pei'iod  of  incubation,  varies  greatly  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  disorder. 

In  some  diseases,  only  a  few  hours  are  required,  as  with 
influenza  or  cholera  at  times.  Usually,  these  two  diseases 
are  from  one  to  three  days  in  developing.  Scarlet  fever 
requires  less  than  a  week,  as  a  rule.  In  diphtheria,  the 
limit  is  usually  a  week  ;  while  in  measles,  typhoid  fever  and 
small-pox  the  development  of  the  infection  takes  nearly  two 
weeks,  and  sometimes  longer.  Hydrophobia  may  require 
many  weeks  and  probably  never  manifests  itself  within  twelve 
days  after  the  infecting  dog-bite. 

As  for  the  season  of  the  year  when  microorganisms  of 
disease  most  thrive,  it  may  be  said  that  as  a  rule  the 
warmer  periods,  provided  that  the  heat  is  not  dry  and  ex- 
cessive, are  most  favorable  to  these.  Flies  and  other  insects 
then  abound  and  tend  also  to  carry  disease  germs  about. 
Numerous  observations  made  by  various  scientists  during 
the  last  decade  demonstrate  this.  Furthermore,  it  has  been 
shown  by  Simmonds  and  others  at  the  time  of  the  epidemic 
of  1892  that  flies  carry  the  infectious  germs  of  cholera  from 
discharges  that  have  not  been  promptly  disinfected.  It  is 
probable  that  the  cholera  bacilli  can  remain  alive  and 
dangerous  for  more  than  an  hour  when  upon  a  fly  moving 
about.  Other  bacteria  may  live  still  longer  under  such 
circumstances. 

In  summer,  more  microorganisms  are  present  in  the  air 
and  upon  food  than  is  generally  the  case  in  winter.  This 
fact,  together  with  the  debilitating  effects  of  prolonged  con- 
stant heat,  explains  the  great  prevalence  of  diarrhoeal  diseases 
in  very  warm  weather.  Other  non-contagious,  infectious 
diseases  also  are  then  relatively  more  abundant.  In  sum- 
mer, the  healthful  influence  of  more  abundant  out-door  air 
is  of  value  as  lessening  the  exposure  to  disease  germs  that 
abound  in  warmed  and  over-peopled  houses  in  winter. 


INFECTIOUS    DISEASES 


403 


In  winter,  tropical  diseases,  such  as  yellow  fever  and 
usually  cholera,  tend  to  be  lessened  to  a  very  great  extent 
or  to  die  out  entirely.  Cold  alone  cannot  be  absolutely 
relied  upon  to  destroy  even  these  infections.  In  winter, 
ordinary  disease  germs  are  much  less  active  out-of-doors. 
Yet  warm,  close  dwellings,  especially  when  thickly  tenanted 
by  unclean  people,  are  liable  to  harbor  and  be  the  means  of 
spreading  small-pox,  scarlet  fever,  measles,  tuberculosis  and 
other  infectious  diseases  that  withstand  the  weather. 

"  Colds  "  are  most  frequent  in  winter,  and  attack  particu- 
larly the  lung  surfaces.  Bronchitis  is  then  a  very  common 
occurrence.  Such  disorders  facilitate  the  entrance  of  the 
infection  of  pneumonia  and  of  other  lung  diseases.  These 
influences  affect  notably  the  poorer  classes  and  others  who 
for  any  reason  do  not  have  proper  food,  fresh  air  and 
hygienic  guidance.  Cleanliness  and  dryness  of  the  ground 
and  good  drainage  are,  as  elsewhere  explained,  of  great 
importance  in  restricting  the  effects  of  disease  germs. 
Abundant  pure  air  and  general  cleanliness  are  invaluable 
preventives  of  infection. 

Specific  Infectious  Diseases 
Malaria  is  accompanied  by  the  presence,  in  the  blood, 
of  minute,  rounded,  crescent-shaped  or  rosette-like  bodies 
usually  inside  or  outside  of  the  red  blood-cells.  These  are 
most  common  at  the  time  of  the  fever  attack.  They 
change  their  forms  and  interior  appearances  under  varying 
conditions  of  growth  and  with  the  variety  of  malarial  attack. 
After  the  early  stages,  they  regularly  acquire  pigment.  This 
one-celled  microorganism  (discovered  in  1880  by  Laveran) 
is  called  the  Plasmodium  of  malaria,  and  is  classed  among 
th.Q  parasitic  protozoa.  The  size  is  usually  from  one  to  two 
mikrons  (see  page  379)  but  may  be  more  than  four  times 
that.  Dock  (in  Texas),  Hke  Italian  and  other  observers, 
found  the  smaller  forms  most  common  in  severe  cases.     In 


404  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

some  mild  cases,  the  microorganisms  may  be  even  larger 
than  a  red  blood-cell.  They  cannot  be  cultivated  arti- 
ficially like  ordinary  bacteria.  Hence  our  knowledge  of 
them  is  as  yet  limited.  Yet  these  are  to-day  regarded  as 
the  cause  of  the  symptoms. 

Malarial  manifestations  are  very  varied.  The  most  com- 
mon is  a  more  or  less  severe  chilly  sensation  followed  by 
feve?'  regularly  recurring  every  one,  two  or  three  days 
(intermittent  fever).  These  symptoms  are  preceded  by 
pains  and  lassitude.  After  the  fever,  comes  sweating.  This 
series  of  symptoms  may  occupy  six  hours  or  more.  Between 
the  attacks  comes  an  interval  of  hours  or  days.  Other 
forms  of  fever,  not  yielding  to  quinine  or  to  the  other 
usually  potent  remedies,  may  be  malarial.  If  an  intermit- 
ting fever  or  neuralgia,  anaemia,  etc.,  yield  to  a  few  large 
doses  of  quinine,  the  hygienic  indication  is- that  a  malarial 
influence  is  present  and  that  it  calls  for  some  remedial 
measures  besides  the  persistent  use  of  drugs. 

Malarial  manifestations  are  considered  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  the  above-mentioned  microorganisms  in  air  that 
has  been  directly  in  contact  with  certain  soils,  usually 
marshy.  Yet  the  term  "  marsh-fever,"  used  to  designate 
these  disorders,  does  not  always  indicate  enough  ;  for  we 
find  malaria  over  great  districts  that  are  not  marshy.  It 
may  even  occur  in  deserts.  As  a  rule,  it  is  most  prominent 
in  low,  moist,  warm  regions  where  the  water-level  fluctuates 
considerably  at  times  and  thus  favors  vegetable  decom- 
position. The  breaking  up  of  some  fallow  fields  and 
other  soils  causes  malarial  attacks,  especially  where  under- 
ground water  remains  stagnant  instead  of  being  drained 
off. 

Malaria  tends  to  be  carried  by  gentle  winds  along  valleys 
and  level  tracts  in  warm  or  mild  weather.  It  is  much  less 
to  be  apprehended  during  the  sunshine  hours  of  the  day 
than  toward  night.     Although  it  is  reported  to  rise  at  times 


MALARIA  405 

hundreds  or  even  thousands  of  feet  up  into  the  air  after 
leaving  its  place  of  origin,  the  rule  is  that  the  subtle  influ- 
ence of  malaria  remains  usually  within  a  few  feet  of  the  soil. 
So,  the  nearer  one  is  to  the  soil,  the  greater  the  liability  to 
the  disease.  Accordingly,  it  is  safer  to  have  the  sleeping- 
room  situated  more  than  twelve  feet  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  especially  if  the  earth  is  being  dug  up.  It  is 
best  in  "ague  districts"  not  to  breathe  the  air  near  the 
ground  either  very  early  or  late  in  the  day.  Fires  at  night 
and  moderately  warm  clothing  are  of  service  against  the 
infection. 

Forests  tend  to  intercept  this  strange  poison.  Tropical 
regions  covered  by  dense  forests  are  said  to  be  generally 
very  free  from  malaria.  It  does  not  appear  to  cross  bodies 
of  water  of  any  size.  Hence  one  is  much  better  protected 
against  this  infection  when  on  a  boat  out  upon  the  surface 
of  a  considerable  sheet  of  water  than  when  one  is  upon 
or  near  a  marshy,  ill-drained  shore.  Moisture  and  warmth 
favor  malaria.  Where  the  average  temperature  of  the  air 
is  not  above  60°  F.  in  the  warmest  weeks  of  the  year,  the 
infection  is  not  to  be  feared.  The  winter  season  is  least 
dangerous  for  visits  to  malarial  districts. 

To  escape  malaria,  one  must  avoid  locating  on  undrained 
soils.  Even  if  they  be  sand  or  gravel,  but  yet  have  sub-soils 
of  clay  or  other  impermeable  substance,  sites  are  liable  to 
be  insufficiently  drained.  Then  they  are  to  be  considered 
unhealthful.  So,  too,  are  rock  formations  that  allow  under- 
ground water  to  stand.  Ballast'  from  malarial  soil  may 
carry  the  infection.  Better  for  such  a  purpose  are  rocks 
that  have  long  been  deep  under  water.  Irrigation  water 
from  malarial  soil  may,  like  such  soil  when  used  on  gardens, 
convey  the  disease.  Food  and  water  should  therefore  in 
doubtful  cases  invariably  be  cooked  before  being  taken  into 
the  system.  It  is  presumable  that  mosquitoes  and  other 
insects  are  a  means  of  diffusing  this  disease.     Hence  mos- 


406  INFECTIOUS    DISEASES 

quito-nettings  are  to  be  recommended.  (See  page  414.) 
Clearjliness  of  the  person  and  of  all  surroundings  is  impor- 
tant. The  general  health  should  be  well  maintained.  Ex- 
cesses are  especially  to  be  avoided. 

Malarial  marshes,  that  cannot  well  be  drained,  are  ren- 
dered less  harmful  when  water  is  backed  over  them  so  that 
they  are  covered.  It  is  found  that  when  dry  earth  or  sand 
from  a  non-malarial  place  is  spread  over  a  malarial  soil,  the 
infectiveness  is  thereby  lessened.  Close  pavements  tend  to 
prevent  direct  infection  from  the  soil.  The  cellars  of 
houses  should,  as  is  elsewhere  explained  in  this  book,  be  so 
tight  that  no  water  can  rise  into  them  from  below. 

The  cautious  administration  of  arsenic  and  the  liberal  use 
of  decoctions  of  sliced  lemons,  together  with  the  drinking 
of  only  such  water  as  has  been  boiled,  are  well-tested 
and  approved  general  preventives  of  infection  in  malarial 
regions. 

Dysentery  is  in  many  cases  probably  caused  by  amoe- 
boid microorganisms  similar  to  those  of  malaria.  Because 
of  these  and  the  various  forms  of  bacteria  that  cause 
diarrhoeal  disorders  (especially  among  the  very  young)  in 
summer,  it  may  again  be  emphasized  that  all  food  and  drink 
then  swallowed  ought  to  have  been  recently  cooked. 

Artificial  feeding  of  infants  causes  a  formidably  large 
number  of  deaths  from  the  diarrhoea  of  warm  weather 
{cholera  infantuiii)  where  proper  care  is  not  taken  to  have 
pure  and  fresh  milk.  Crowding  in  filthy  tenements  aggra- 
vates this.  Sterilizing  bad  milk,  by  boiling  it,  renders  such 
inferior  milk  safer  ;  although  perfectly  pure  and  fresh  milk 
is  preferable  as  a  food.  The  bowel  discharges  of  patients 
with  diarrhoeal  and  dysenteric  diseases  ought  always  to  be 
disinfected. 

Typhoid  fever  [enteric  fever)  is  regarded  as  due  to 
large,  very  mobile  bacilli  which  are  seen,  under  a  good 
compound  microscope,  to  be  thick,  three  times  as  long  as 


TYPHOID    FEVER  407 

broad  and  having  rounded  ends.     (See  Fig.  74.)     Excepting 
Eisner's  iodide  of  potash   and  potato  jelly  culture       ^^| 
test,  it  is  at  present  regarded  as  doubtful  whether  any       SKJ 
of  the  various  lauded  methods  of  recognizing  these      1^^ 
bacilli  in  suspected  water  be  actually  reliable.     The      x  1400. 
peculiar  growth  (or  apparent  lack  of  growth)  on  acid     "^-  74- 
potato  culture-surfaces  (see  page  381)  seems  distinctive,  if 
used  with  other  tests  at  the  same  time.     The  typhoid  germs 
grow  in  sterilized  milk  without  coagulating  it.     Growing  /// 
beef  brot/i,  they  develop  no  gas.     Various   harmless  bacteria 
resemble  these  very  closely. 

In  milk  and  on  other  foods  the  germs  of  typhoid  can 
increase  very  rapidly.  Hence  milk,  like  solid  food,  is  at 
times  an  important  means  of  carrying  the  infection.  The 
adulteration  of  milk  with  water  from  a  contaminated  well,  or 
the  use  of  such  water  (when  unboiled)  for  the  purpose  of 
rinsing  out  milk  cans  or  bottles,  can  unquestionably  cause 
this  disease.  The  period  of  incubation  is  usually  twelve 
days,  but  may  be  longer. 

Typhoid  fever  is  most  commonly  caused  by  the  use  of 
water  into  which  the  harmful  bacilli  have  entered  from  the 
bowel  discharges  coming  from  a  person  who  has  the  disease. 
These  discharges  contain  immense  numbers  of  the  danger- 
ous germs.  Hence  a  single  patient  can,  through  careless- 
ness, be  the  source  of  infecting  more  than  a  thousand 
people.  When  a  distinct  case  of  typhoid  occurs,  the  possi- 
bility that  the  water  is  infected  must  always  present  itself. 
Defective  privies  and  drains,  or  the  careless  throwing  out 
of  discharges  that  are  not  disinfected,  usually  explain  the 
origin  of  the  disease. 

Typhoid  fever  often  appears  in  milder  forms  which  are 
mistaken  for  other  (less  serious)  diseases.  Vague  headache 
and  indisposition  with  slowly  developing  fever  in  which  the 
temperature  increases  for  days  gradually  and  regularly 
(oscillating  slightly  downward   in   the  morning),   allow  the 


4o8  INFECTIOUS    DISEASES 

case  to  be  considered  as  typhoidal  even  if  there  be  no 
diarrhoea.  If  the  spleen  is  enlarged,  this  diagnosis  is  a  very 
safe  one  where  the  disease  cannot  be  classed  as  anything 
else.  This  point  is  of  considerable  hygienic  importance. 
/;/  case  of  doubt,  the  health  of  others  demands  that  the 
patient  be  carefully  nursed  and  the  discharges  dismfected. 

The  matters  which  come  from  the  patient  are  in  no  case 
to  be  allowed  to  remain  where  they  can  possibly  be  washed 
into  a  well  or  water-course.  Even  when  typhoid  fever  (or 
mountain  fever,  as  it  is  sometimes  called)  arises  in  wild 
regions,  it  can  usually  be  traced  to  neglect  of  the  above- 
indicated  precautions  to  keep  the  food  and  water  clean. 
The  germs  of  the  disease  can  be  carried  alive  many  miles 
down  a  stream  or  diffused  far  through  water.  The  recent 
experience  of  Newburyport,  Lawrence  and  Lowell  (on  the 
Merrimac),  as  well  as  of  Chicago,  St.  Louis  and  very  many 
other  communities,  proves  this. 

Typhoid  fever  is  preventable.  It  does  not  arise  or  spread 
where  proper  precautions  are  taken  to  disinfect  discharges, 
to  cultivate  true  cleanliness  and  to  use  only  cooked  food 
and  water  whenever  they  are  not  wholly  above  suspicion. 
This  disease  destroys  many  thousands  of  lives  every  year. 
Even  in  India  it  deserves  to  be  dreaded  more  than  the 
cholera.  Typhoid  fever  invades  all  classes  of  people.  It 
is  most  common  in  the  years  between  puberty  and  middle 
age.  Those  who  have  once  had  this  disease  are  very  rarely 
attacked  by  it  a  second  time. 

To  prevent  typhoid  fever,  general  and  special  cleanli- 
ness are  demanded.  The  discharges  of  real  or  suspected 
cases  of  typhoid  must  not  be  allowed  to  become  a  source  of 
infection.  They  need  to  be  disinfected  (as  explained  in  the 
following  chapter)  by  milk  of  lime  or  other  means.  The 
clothing,  soiled  linen,  all  objects  that  have  been  near  the 
patient  and  also  the  hands  of  attendants  require  disinfec- 
tion.   When  travelling  or  when  suspicious  cases  of  fever  are 


PLAGUE.      CHOLERA  409 

known  to  be  in  the  neighborhood,  water,  milk  and  other 
food  should  be  cooked  before  being  used.  In  this,  as  in 
other  diseases,  a  weakened  or  diseased  condition  of  the  sys- 
tem predisposes  to  infection. 

The  plague  {^Bubonic  plague^  Black  death)  is  the  same 
disease  that  ravaged  Europe  during  the  fourteenth  century. 
Since  then  it  has  occasionally  been  introduced  there  from 
its  lurking  places  in  oriental  lands  where  filth  and  other  un- 
hygienic conditions  induce  irregular  outbreaks  of  varying 
severity.  Cleanly  people  do  not  acquire  it  unless  except- 
ionally exposed  to  the  infection.  Domestic  animals  are  sus- 
ceptible to  it  and  epidemics  of  plague  are  preceded  by  a 
great  mortality  among  rats  and  mice,  which  afford  a  com- 
mon cause  of  disseminating  the  infectious  bacilli.  These 
are  short  and  thick,  resembling  those  shown  on  page  407, 
but  are  smaller.  Since  the  period  of  infection  is  always  less 
than  a  week,  we  can  easily  quarantine  against  cases  among 
trans-ocean  passengers.  There  seems  to  be  more  dcinger  in 
the  entrance  of  infected  goods  from  China,  India  and  other 
eastern  lands.  There  it  caused  many  tliousands  of  deaths 
between  1894  and  1898.  Carried  presumably  in  a  ship  from 
Hong  Kong  to  Bombay  in  July,  1890,  the  resultant  mortality 
was  enormous.  Even  as  late  as  March  17,  1898,  there  were 
reported  265  deaths  daily  from  plague. 

Yersin,  in  1894  and  1895,  demonstrated  the  curative  and 
preventive  value  of  the  antitoxine  from  the  unfiltered  but 
sterilized  cultures  of  the  plague  bacillus.  Yet  Haffkine's 
double  inoculation  method  superseded  it  for  preventing  the 
disease,  as  tested  in  many  thousand  cases.  Lustig's  serum 
method  is  said  by  the  Lancet  to  be  curative. 

Cholera  {Asiatic  or  Indian  cholera)  always  exists  in  the 
warm,  moist,  alluvial  ground  of  the  Ganges  delta  and  in 
Bengal.  Thence  it  is  carried,  chiefly  by  pilgrims,  toward 
Mecca  in  Arabia  and  to  Hurdwar  where  the  Ganges  river 
breaks  out  of  the  mountains.     Fostered  by  the  filthy  habits 


4 TO  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

of  the  masses  that  resort  to  these  shrines  or  market-places, 
the  infection  is  at  times  gradually  diffused  to  many  remote 
regions,  usually  by  overland  routes.  Yet  the  germs  of  chol- 
era can  survive  an  ocean  voyage  of  weeks,  and  then  cause 
infection.  The  rapidity  and  extent  of  the  wandermgs  of 
the  disease  from  its  filthy  East  Indian  home  and  from  other 
haunts  of  the  infection  have  increased  with  the  swift  railway 
and  steamship  facilities  of  the  last  half -century. 

Cholera  reached  this  country  first  by  way  of  Canada 
through  Ireland  during  the  epidemic  of  1827  to  1837.  In 
1849,  from  another  epidemic,  cases  crossed  the  Atlantic,  and 
again  in  1866  the  disease  was  brought  here.  In  1873  it 
entered  through  New  Orleans  and  extended  considerably. 
The  epidemic  of  1883  was  kept  out  by  our  quarantines,  but 
readied  South  America.  It  was  very  severe  in  Japan  and 
part  of  Asia,  and  caused  many  deaths  in  southern  Europe, 
especially  in  Naples.  The  sixth  of  the  great  epidemics  be- 
came serious  in  1892,  causing  thousands  of  deaths  in  Asia 
and  eastern  Europe,  notably  in  Russia,  where,  as  also  in  Ga- 
licia  and  Turkey,  it  lasted  till  February,  1896.  It  lingered 
still  longer  in  Egypt.  In  1898  this  epidemic  had  ceased, 
even  in  India.  Hamburg  was  sorely  visited  for  weeks  after 
August  15th,  between  8  and  9,000  deaths  resulting  from  the 
infection  which  was  clearly  shown  to  have  come  solely  from 
polluted  drinking  water.  [Seepages  310 and  311].  Thence 
several  cases  were  brought  to  New  York,  chiefly  by  Russian 
exiles.  Almost  all  of  these  were  kept  out  by  quarantine 
measures.  The  few  that  entered  were  isolated.  No  cases 
have  occurred  here  since  then.  A  few  got  into  South 
America  and  Hawaii. 

This  epidemic  not  only  demonstrated  the  value  of  pure 
water  supplies,  but  also  enabled  valuable  contributions  to  be 
made  to  a  scientific  understanding  of  the  disease.  It  showed 
the  great  preventive  value  of  Pasteur's  inoculation  method 
as  worked  out  by  Haffkine  and  practised  in  India  with  great 
saving  of  life. 


CHOLERA 


411 


Cholera  Is  generally  regarded  as  due  to  the  entrance  into 

the  digestive  system,  and  the  presence  there  in  and  on  the 

walls  of   the   intestine,  of   the  peculiar  curved  or  comma- 

f^t^^^        shaped  (see   Fig.  75,  B) 

*p^^^H   bacilli      discovered      by 

Wt{    ^^^"^   -    '883.      These  (^        {    ,^.;^;^J  I 
^    ^«   are  usually  considerably  '^•— '  \^  ^i^^^"  J 


CHOLCRA^ 
X  1200- 

Fig.  75 


less  than  xsioT  i^^h  (0.8 


Fig.  76a. 


to  2  mikrons)  in   length.  ^'^-  7^- 

They  are  seen  to  be  actively  mobile  when  examined  in  a 
hanging  drop,  as  explained  on  page  379.  When  a  number 
of  these  comfna  bacilli  are  joined,  end-to- 
end,  there  results  a  spiral  appearance  {spiril- 
lum. See  Fig.  75,  A).  The  peculiar  ap- 
pearance of  (two-day-old)  "  colonies  "  of  the 
comma  bacilli  upon  gelatine  plates  (see  page 
382)  is  shown  in  Fig.  76  (from  Dr.  Shake- 
speare's book)  and  Fig.  76^.  They  are  there  represented  as 
enlarged  nearly  fifty  times.  Fig.  77  is  a  half-size  represen- 
tation of  gelatine  tube  cultures  (see  page  382)  of  the  cholera 
bacillus.  The  tube  on  the  left  shows 
the  appearance  at  the  end  of  the  second 
day  after  introduction  of  the  culture. 
In  the  right-hand  tube,  the  culture  is 
twice  as  old. 

Although  more  than  six  other  kinds 
of  spiral  bacteria  have  been  reported, 
they  need  not  be  mistaken  for  the  germs 
of  Asiatic  cholera  by  any  one  skilled  in 
practical  bacteriological  work.  This 
fact  aids  the  definite  recognition  of  the 
disease  whenever  a  mild  case,  in  the 
guise  of  severe  diarrhoea  or  cholerine,  occurs  as  the  fore- 
runner of  an  epidemic.  More  than  thirty-six  hours  are 
needed  to  determine  accurately  whether  the  bacteria  com- 


412  INFECTIOUS    DISEASES 

ing  from  a  given  doubtful  case  are  genuine  cholera  bacilli. 
Hence  one  must  not  wait  for  a  laboratory  decision  before 
taking  decisive  measures  to  isolate  a  suspected  case  and  to 
disinfect  the  discharges  and  all  else  that  has  come  from 
or  been  near  the  patient. 

These  precautions  must  be  taken,  if  possible,  even  before 
the  appearance  of  all  of  the  characteristic  signs.  The 
severe  symptoms  are  cramps,  violent  vomiting  and  purging, 
with  copious  watery  discharges  from  the  bowels,  drying  up 
of  the  body,  collapse,  etc.  At  times  when  cholera  is  known 
to  prevail  or  be  impending,  any  case  of  diarrhoea  should  be 
treated  with  more  care  than  usual  as  regards  disinfection 
of  the  discharges.  Several  times  since  the  experience  of 
Canada  at  Grosse  Isle,  in  1834,  the  importance  of  not  ignor- 
ing mild  diarrhoeal  cases,  where  the  possibility  of  cholera 
infection  exists,  has  been  made  painfully  evident.  The 
experience  of  the  Hamburg  physicians  shows  the  undesira- 
bleness  of  using  much  opium  in  such  cases.  Cholera 
usually  manifests  itself  within  two  days  after  the  individual 
is  infected ;  and  always  within  five  days.  This  incubation 
period  may,  however,  last  only  a  few  hours. 

Cholera  is  a  filth  disease  of  warm  weather.  Its  germs  are 
very  sensitive  to  high  heat  and  to  drying.  Yet  the  infection 
can  be  carried  overland  through  the  dryest  regions.  It  can 
also  survive  winters,  and  even  attack  people  during  cold 
weather.  The  remarks  made  on  page  408,  as  to  the  desir- 
ability of  cleanliness  in  typhoid  fever  and  the  necessity  of 
using  only  cooked  food  and  boiled  water  when  such  a  dis- 
ease is  nigh,  apply  equally  to  cholera. 

Cholera  germs  are,  as  has  just  been  stated,  very  sensitive 
to  heat.  Shortly  after  they  come  into  contact  with  a  moist 
temperature  exceeding  140°  F.,  they  perish.  Hence  the 
value  of  very  hot  or  boiling  water  and  steam  for  disinfect- 
ing clothing,  rags,  and  other  articles  that  possibly  retain 
infection  from  having  been  in  contact  with  a  cholera  case. 


TO    DESTROY    CHOLERA    GERMS  413 

If  Steam  be  used  for  the  holds  of  vessels,  great  care  is 
needed  to  see  that  sufficient  heat  reaches  every  part.  The 
bilge-water  and  ballast  require  to  be  disinfected.  All  por- 
tions of  the  interior  of  a  cholera-infected  vessel  must  be 
disinfected.  Where  very  hot  water  or  steam  cannot  be 
used,  and  in  dwellings,  hotels,-  lodging-houses,  railway 
stations,  railway  cars  and  other  conveyances,  the  disinfect- 
ants mentioned  on  and  after  page  439  suffice  if  used 
thoroughly. 

Cholera  bacilli  perish  very  promptly  upon  being  exposed 
to  the  action  of  acids.  Even  sour  wine  destroys  them  after 
a  time  when  it  is  added  in  equal  parts  to  water  in  which 
some  of  these  are  present.  Yet  it  is  preferable  to  have 
drinking-water  invariably  boiled.  Nor  should  aerated  waters 
always  be  relied  upon  by  travellers.  Beer,  when  good,  is 
made  of  cooked  water.  Hence,  proper  beer  does  not  con- 
tain any  germs  of  cholera  that  may  have  been  in  the  origi- 
nal water  used  for  brewing.  Yet  water  used  for  rinsing 
kegs  and  glasses  may  contain  very  many  kinds  of  bacteria. 

Crude  hydrochloric  and  sulphuric  acids  are  very  valuable 
for  disinfecting  bowel  discharges  from  cholera  cases.  They 
are  to  be  used  so  as  to  equal  at  least  one  per  cent,  of  the 
discharges.  Carbolic  acid  solutions  ought  to  be  acid  as 
explained  on  page  440.  Fresh  milk  of  lime  is  valuable, 
but  should  be  in  stronger  proportions  than  the  usual  one 
per  cent. 

Copper  sulphate  is  well  recommended  by  some  ;  yet 
recent  experiments  discredit  it  when  used  in  solutions  of 
less  than  five  per  cent.  Camphor  is  one  of  the  agents  that, 
in  laboratory  tests,  have  proved  valuable  in  the  strength  of 
less  than  half  of  one  per  cent.  Its  use  must  be  a  limited 
one.  Since  cholera  bacilli  are,  in  experiments,  sensitive  to 
drying,  it  is  probable  that  exposure  of  light,  delicate  tis- 
sues to  sunlit,  dry,  open  air  destroys  any  stray  germs  that 
may  by   chance  be  on  apparently  clean  clothing  that  has 


414  INFECTIOUS    DISEASES 

been  upon  a  cholera  ship.  If  discretion  be  well  used, 
unnecessary  and  promiscuous  steam  (or  other)  disinfection 
of  finery  may  be  obviated.  The  fumigation  of  voyagers  is 
worse  than  useless. 

Yellow  fever  (sometimes  called  "  black  vomit "  from  the 
frequency  of  that  symptofti,  due  to  changed  blood  from  the 
stomach)  is  a  very  dangerous,  rapidly  fatal,  infectious  disease 
of  tropical  America,  including  much  of  the  eastern  coast  of 
South  America.  Although  most  to  be  dreaded  by  our  Gulf 
ports,  it  at  times  goes  inland.  It  has  never  affected  places 
in  North  America  that  had  a  high  altitude,  although  in  South 
America  it  has  been  a  serious  pestilence  at  a  height  of  more 
than  two  miles  above  sea-level. 

It  does  not  get  a  foothold  in  places,  like  San  Francisco, 
having  a  mean  temperature  under  60°  F.  Yet  it  has  several 
times  reached  New  York  and  Boston,  and  has  occurred  as 
far  to  the  northward  as  Portland,  Halifax  and  Quebec. 
The  disease  has  been  seen  in  Great  Britain  (at  Swansea,  in 
1864)  in  a  northern  latitude  of  51°  30'. 

Yellow  fever  is  a  filth  disease,  being  usually  limited  to 
crowded  sections  of  hot,  moist  ports,  on  rivers  or  on  the  sea, 
where  sanitation  is  very  defective.  White  people  from  the 
north,  who  are  not  acclimatized  arid  have  never  had  the 
disease,  should  be  very  careful  when  in  unclean  tropical 
places.  Sanarelli's  study  of  the  peculiar  bacilli  of  this  dis- 
ease shows  that  they  thrive  in  mouldy  places.  They  live 
very  long  in  ordinary  water,  but  are  destroyed  as  soon  as  it 
is  heated  to  160*^  Fahr. 

It  is  well  to  drink  only  boiled  water  where  the  disease 
prevails  or  is  suspected  :  all  food  also  should  then  be  freshly 
cooked  by  clean  and  healthy  people.  Mosquito-nets  and  the 
use  of  ointments  on  the  hands  prevent  the  danger  of  receiv- 
ing the  infection  from  the  bites  of  flies  or  mosquitoes.  In 
the  day-time,  a  tube  of  fine  netting  can  be  worn  drawn  in 
above  the  brim  of  a  stiff  hat  so  as  to  hang  over  the  edges 


CONTAGIOUS    DISEASES  415 

and  to  go  well  down  upon  the  shoulders.  Thus  it  is  kept 
away  from  the  face,  ears  and  neck.  It  is  also  better  in  this 
respect  if  a  whalebone  or  split-rattan  hoop  be  attached  to 
the  netting  just  at  the  top  of  the  shoulders. 

Typhus  fever  {jail  fever,  ship  fever)  is  quite  contagious  ; 
but  is  usually  limited  to  filthy  and  degraded  people  who  are 
ill-fed  and  crowded  together  in  poorly  ventilated  and  dirty 
places.  Cold  weather  most  favors  the  conditions  that  bring 
this  disease  to  a  place.  Yet  it  also  occurs  in  summer. 
When  once  it  has  entered  a  community,  it  may  last  for 
several  years.  Quarantine  officials  ought  always  to  be  on 
the  lookout  for  it.  The  period  of  incubation  appears  to  be 
very  variable.  In  some  cases,  considerably  more  than  two 
weeks  may  elapse  between  the  time  of  infection  and  the 
outbreak  of  the  disease.  Its  microorganic  cause  is  as  yet 
unknown.  Possibly  protozoa  (see  page  400)  are  causative 
of  it. 

It  is  imperatively  necessary  that  disinfection  be  thoroughly 
carried  out  in  the  lodgings  or  other  places  where  cases  of 
typhus  fever  have  been.  The  presence  of  such  a  disease 
indicates  that  better  sanitary  conditions  are  needed.  This 
and  other  infectious  diseases  are  best  cared  for  in  special 
hospitals  however  small.  Isolated  tents  (afterward  disin- 
fected) answer  very  well  for  the  purpose.  It  is  desirable 
that  the  attendants  upon  such  cases  be  selected  from  among 
people  who  themselves  have  had  the  disease,  and  that  they 
be  cleanly  and  careful  not  to  carry  the  infection  further. 

Venereal  diseases  are  disseminated  and  propagated 
almost  entirely  by  impure  sexual  contact.  Of  these,  gonor- 
rhea is  probably  regarded,  by  the  great  majority  of  en- 
lightened physicians,  as  much  more  serious  than  syphilis 
when  the  ultimate  effects  of  these  infections  are  considered. 
In  view  of  the  general,  ophthalmic  and  especially  uterine 
derangements  that  these  entail  upon  the  innocent,  it  is  de- 
sirable that  more  rigorous  restrictions  be  imposed  upon  the 


4l6  INFECTIOUS    DISEASES 

semi-criminals  (of  both  sexes)  who  knowingly  remain  the 
dangerous  sources  of  these  infections. 

Glanders  {sLXid  farcy),  splenic  fever  (anthrax),  puerperal 
fever  (or  other  fever),  actinomycosis  and  other  diseases 
that  have  rendered  meat  unfit  for  food, — all  require  that 
a  carcass  condemned  for  such  reason  be  at  once  de- 
stroyed.    Burning  it  is  the  best  way. 

If  a  carcass  from  splenic  fever,  for  instance,  be  buried, 
there  is  a  slight  possibility  that  the  very  hardy  and  danger- 
ous bacteria  of  that  disease  may  be  brought  to  the  surface 
of  the  ground  by  earthworms  and  the  infection  may  then 
survive,  as  explained  by  Pasteur.  Suspected  cases  of 
animals  having  these  diseases  or  tuberculosis  are  to  be 
isolated  for  careful  observation.  The  places  where  they 
have  been  kept,  as  well  as  food  and  all  objects  that  such 
animals  have  contaminated,  ought  to  be  thoroughly  dis- 
infected. 

Erysipelas  is  a  rapid  infectious  fever.  The  skin  is  red 
and  elevated  over  (usually)  a  small  portion  of  the  body. 
This  raised,  red  area  is  sharply  defined  against  the  healthy 
skin.  In  the  skin  within  this  irregular,  inflamed  area,  very 
many  small,  round  bacteria  that  grow  in  chains  {streptococ- 
cus;  see  Fig.  67)  are  found.  They  are  in  appearance  much 
like  some  of  the  microorganisms  that  cause  suppuration  or 
other  bad  symptoms  in  infected  wounds. 

Erysipelas  and  all  wound  infections  indicate  that  some 
kind  of  harmful  bacteria  has  probably  got  into  the  wound 
or  scratch  or  other  injury.  It  may  be  that  a  knife,  a  razor, 
the  surface  of  the  injured  part  itself,  the  hands  or  unclean 
dressings  had  the  infective  bacteria  present  upon  them,  and 
were  the  means  of  introducing  these  germs  into  the  skin 
and  thus  causing  the  disease.  The  clothing,  hair  and  beard 
may  carry  infection  from  a  previous  case  if  they  be  left 
unclean  ed  after  they  have  been  in  contact  with  such  a  case 
or  even  near  it. 


WOUND    INFECTION,    ETC.  417 

Tetanus  [lockjaw)  and  childbed  fever  are  to  be  classed 
among  the  infections  that  may  result  from  lack  of  cleanli- 
ness and  care  in  regard  to  making  or  treating  wounds,  how- 
ever slight.  The  hands  (and  faiger- nails)  of  midwives, 
nurses,  operators  (surgeons,  dentists  and  veterinarians)  need 
to  be  especially  clean.     So  also  must  all  instruments  or  any- 


thing else  that   comes  near  a  wound.     The  use  of   ^| 
(i  to  2000)  corrosive  sublimate  solutions  (or  of  water  #  \^ 
boiled  after  the  addition  of  half  a  per  cent,  of  com-  \^^y^^ 
mon  salt)  to  rinse  wounds  is  desirable  in  all  cases,    xhoo. 
The  skin   to  be   cut  requires  to  be  cleaned  before  ^*^-  '^^• 
an  operation.    (See  page  449.)     The  dressings  and  instru- 
ments should  have  been  sterilized  by  heat.     If  heat  will 
cause    injury,    instruments   may   be   immersed    for  several 
minutes   in  a  five  per  cent,  carbolic  acid  solution.     This 
suffices  in  an  ordinary  case. 

When  it  is  tetanus  that  we  are  guarding  against,  a  i  to 
500  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  acidulated  water  is 
to  be  used  for  cleansing  the  skin.  (The  peculiar  shape  of 
the  bacilli  that  cause  tetanus  is  shown  by  Fig.  78.) 

After  childbirth  (or  after  miscarriage)^  the  parts  affected 
are  to  be  treated  as  wounds  requiring  rest  and  the  extrem- 
est  cleanliness.  By  the  observation  of  thorough  cleanliness 
in  every  detail  of  operating  and  after-care,  all  operative 
surgery  is  successful  to-day  to  an  extent  that  less  than  a 
quarter  of  a  century  ago  seemed  impossible. 

As  indicated  in  the  chapter  on  Schools,  granular  lids 
[trachoma)  and  catarrhal  diseases  of  the  eye  are  infectious 
and  liable  to  be  communicated,  especially  from  one  child  to 
another.     So,  too,  are  various  common  skin  diseases.  -'^ 

Diphtheria  is  generally  regarded  as  due  to  infec-    01  pT 
tion  with  bacteria  called  the  bacilli  of   Klebs  and    x  1400. 
Loeffler.     These   microorganisms    are   sporeless,    of  ^^^-  79- 
varying    and    irregular   shape.       Fig.   79    represents   them 
fairly.     They  are  often  longer  than  shown  there.     As  may 
27 


4l8  INFECTIOUS    DISEASES 

be  seen  from  the  figure,  the  ends  are  rounded.  These 
bacilli  can  be  stained  by  means  of  the  usual  aniline  colors, 
especially  by  methylene  blue.  They  are  found  in  num- 
bers in  the  dense,  white  false  membrane  which  they  cause 
upon  the  throat  and  other  surfaces  into  which  they  become 
inoculated  and  grow.  Yet  they  are  not  found  diffused 
throughout  the  blood  and  other  organs.  The  marked  symp- 
toms with  and  following  diphtheria  are  to  be  considered  as 
due  to  organic  poison  (toxalbumin)  generated  by  these  local- 
ized bacteria  and  absorbed  into  the  system. 

Diphtheria  appears  to  have  increased  in  amount  and  se- 
verity during  the  last  forty  years,  and  that  especially  in 
cities,  while  formerly  it  was  more  a  disease  of  the  country. 
Those  who  are  most  familiar  with  the  disease,  ascribe  much 
of  this  increase  to  complex  and  very  faulty  house  drainage. 
Fewer  cases  occur  in  summer  than  in  those  colder  months 
of  the  year  when  children  are  most  crowded  in  close,  warm 
rooms. 

The  germs  of  this  disease  thrive  best  in  damp  and  dark 
places,  and  are  there  most  dangerous.  Diphtheria  may  occur 
on  ships.  Almost  any  article,  as  well  as  the  dust  of  the  air, 
can  be  the  means  of  conveying  the  infection.  The  bacilli 
of  diphtheria  have  been  found  alive  and  virulent  after  months 
of  drying.  Shreds  and  small  bits  of  membrane  coughed 
out  from  the  throat  of  a  diphtheritic  patient  are  therefore 
very  dangerous,  and  should  be  looked  after  and  promptly 
disinfected.  The  disease  can  be  acquired  from  pet  birds, 
cats  and  other  animals.  It  can  also  come  from  the  use  of 
unboiled  milk  which  has  received  the  infection. 

Diphtheria  germs  perish  if  exposed  to  a  temperature  above 
140°  F.  Hence,  if  the  soiled  garments  and  all  other  wash- 
able articles,  that  have  been  near  a  patient  having  diphthe- 
ria, be  kept  for  a  very  few  minutes  in  water  not  far  below 
the  boiling  point,  we  can  be  certain  that  the  infection  on 
these  articles  is  destroyed.     It  is  required,  of  course,  that 


DIPHTHERIA  419 

ei^ery  part  of  the  infected  fabrics  be  exposed  to  the  heat. 
If  not  otherwise  treated  with  disinfectants,  coughed-up  mat- 
ters should  be  caught,  at  once  wrapped  up  in  paper  or  cloth 
and  burned  without  unnecessary  delay. 

For  draperies  and  other  furnishings,  steam  disinfection  is 
to  be  advised  if  practicable.  For  the  walls,  floors,  etc.,  of 
the  sick-room,  the  standard  (i  to  looo)  solution  of  corrosive 
sublimate  is  to  be  freely  used.  This  solution  is  very  valu- 
able against  the  germs  of  diphtheria.  Loeffler  found  it  of 
great  potency  even  in  the  strength  of  i  to  loooo.  In  gen- 
eral, it  is  best  to  use  a  strong  solution  (i  to  looo)  of  this  or 
a  three  or  four  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid  made  with 
water  to  which  half  its  weight  of  alcohol  has  been  added. 
This  is  better  than  lysol  or  any  of  the  proprietary  dis- 
infectants. 

For  rinsing  out  the  throats  of  people  who  wish  to  prevent 
any  possibility  of  the  disease,  Loeffler's  authoritative  experi- 
ments allow  us  to  recommend  the  use  of  a  i  to  10,000  solu- 
tion of  cyanide  of  77iercury  as  being  efficacious  against  diph- 
theria germs  and  yet  not  unpleasant.  Chloroform  water 
answers  the  same  purpose.     [See  Antidiphtherin^  page  396]. 

If  diphtheria  is  prevented  from  entering  a  place,  no  cases 
can  occur  there.  When  a  case  occurs,  it  ought  to  be  iso- 
lated and  careful  disinfection  insisted  upon  in  order  that  the 
infection  shall  go  no  further.  At  times,  sore  throat  that  is 
not  regarded  as  serious  proves,  by  the  subsequent  paralysis 
and  other  signs,  to  be  mild  diphtheria  which  however  can  in 
its  turn  give  rise  to  the  most  virulent  infection.  The  term 
croup  is  often  used  for  cases  which  should  be  called  diph- 
theria. These  facts  must  be  remembered  by  school  au- 
thorities, who  ought  to  have  the  fullest  power  to  exclude 
suspected  cases  of  sore  throat  even  without  waiting  for 
medical  recognition  of  the  exact  nature  of  the  ailment. 

Whooping-cough  {pertussis)  is  a  very  infectious  dis- 
ease of  childhood,  but  can  occasionally  occur  in  adults  who 


420  INFECTIOUS    DISEASES 

have  not  had  it  in  early  years.  It  is  most  serious  in  the 
very  youngest  children,  and  not  only  causes  many  deaths 
but,  by  its  complications  and  consequences,  may  leave  the 
young  child  very  weak  and  burdened  with  lung  disease.  So, 
it  is  best  that  a  child  be  guarded  against  the  infection  as 
long  as  possible.  Thus  the  disease  will  be  evaded  altogether 
or  will  be  milder  if  it  comes.  The  general  employment  of 
isolation,  disinfection  and  exclusion  of  cases  from  school  for 
two  months  after  the  disease  has  begun  needs  to  be  insisted 
upon.  The  infection  may  linger  in  (and  be  carried  by)  the 
clothes  of  persons  who  have  been  in  contact  with  a  case  of 
whooping-cough. 

Mumps,  although  very  much  less  serious,  can  also  be 
classed  among  the  infectious  diseases  to  be  prevented  by 
the  general  means  above  indicated.  It  can  be  epidemic 
and  attack  many  persons.  The  infectiousness  of  a  case 
may  persist  for  weeks  after  the  peculiar  swelling  of  the 
glands  near  the  jaw  has  subsided.  To  prevent  infection  of 
other  people  (if  not  to  lessen  the  liability  of  other  glands  of 
the  body  becoming  inflamed)  the  patient  ought  to  be  kept 
in  bed.  After  a  person  receives  the  infection  of  mumps, 
from  two  to  three  weeks  may  be  required  for  the  disease  to 
manifest  itself. 

Exanthematous  diseases  comprise  scarlet  fever,  mea- 
sles and  small-pox  ;  also  such  less  important  infectious  dis- 
eases as  German  measles  (or  Rotheln)  and  chicken-pox  (or 
varicella).  Like  nearly  all  skin  diseases,  these  call  for  the 
observance  of  cleanliness  and  care.  Most  important  are  the 
following  three  eruptive  fevers. 

Scarlet  fever  (or  scarlatina)  is  very  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  world,  especially  in  the  temperate  zones.  It 
occurs  at  all  times  of  the  year  and  is  associated  with  no  par- 
ticular soil  or  geological  formation.  Although  occurring 
especially  among  young  children,  all  ages  may  occasionally 
suffer  from  it.     It  is  very  rare  that  one  has  it  a  second  time. 


SCARLET    FEVER  42I 

Some  epidemics  and  isolated  cases  of  it  are  much  less  fatal 
than  the  average.  In  an  ordinary,  mild  epidemic,  consid- 
erably less  than  a  tenth  of  the  cases  end  fatally.  Some- 
times, however,  a  third  of  the  infected  children  die.  Seri- 
ous injury  to  the  ears  and  kidneys  often  results  among  those 
who  survive  the  disease. 

Scarlet  fever  has  at  times  been  traced  to  the  use  of 
uncooked  milk  that  had  taken  up  the  infection  from  a  case 
in  the  family  of  the  farm-people  supplying  the  milk.  This 
disease  is  probably  not  derived  from  animals.  It  is  very 
contagious,  and  the  infection  can  be  carried  by  a  careless 
person  not  having  the  disease,  but  who  has  not  been  prop- 
erly disinfected  after  visiting  or  nursing  a  case  of  it.  This 
applies  to  physicians  as  well  as  to  others. 

The  scales  cast  off  from  the  skin  appear  to  be  exceedingly 
dangerous  as  carriers  of  the  infection.  Hence  salves  or  oil, 
used  for  relief  to  the  skin,  are  to  be  recommended  for  the 
further  purpose  of  keeping  the  cast-off  scales  from  flying 
about. 

To  prevent  the  spread  of  scarlet  fever,  the  patient  and 
attendants  ought  to  be  isolated.  In  the  very  beginning  of 
the  disease,  all  matters  that  come  from  the  mouth  require 
to  be  disinfected.  The  same  may  be  said  of  any  disease 
attended  with  sore  throat,  sore  mouth  or  cough.  Not  only 
the  bed-clothing,  but  also  all  things  that  have  come  into 
contact  with  the  patient,  need  to  be  disinfected.  It  is  safest 
when  the  room  and  furniture  are  faithfully  disinfected  as 
explained  on  page  445.  If  the  other  children  of  the  family 
where  the  case  occurs  are  allowed  to  come  into  the  sick- 
room, they  ought  not  to  be  permitted  to  attend  school. 

The  patient  should  be  kept  out  of  school  for  at  least 
seven  weeks ;  and  before  readmission,  it  is  well  that  the 
child  receive  a  physician's  certificate  of  health  and  non- 
infectiveness.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  after  recovery, 
the  child  is   delicate   for   months.      Accordingly,   physical 


422  INFECTIOUS    DISEASES 

health  then  needs  consideration  more  than  progress  in  school. 
If  schools  are  closed  because  of  the  presence  of  this  or 
another  infectious  disease,  the  buildings  must  be  thoroughly- 
disinfected  in  every  part,  including  the  ventilating  shafts 
and  flues. 

Measles  (called  also  morbilli  or  rubeola)  may  be  said  to 
be  usually  much  less  fatal  than  scarlet  fever,  although  more 
common.  Only  a  small  percentage  of  the  average  children 
(in  cities  at  least)  escape  an  attack  of  measles.  It  is  very 
rare  to  have  the  disease  a  second  time.  Like  whooping- 
cough,  it  is  common  for  measles  to  leave  the  lungs  or 
bronchial  tubes  in  an  inflamed  or  delicate  condition  and 
liable  to  take  in  the  infection  of  tubercular  consumption. 
In  warm  weather,  inflammation  of  the  bowels  is  to  be 
guarded  against  after  an  attack  of  measles. 

Schools  are  a  very  common  source  of  infection,  and  there- 
from the  disease  may  become  epidemic  ;  for  it  is  exceedingly 
contagious.  What  has  just  been  said  regarding  precautions 
for  disinfecting  and  restricting  cases  of  scarlet  fever  applies 
also  to  measles,  although  the  latter  disease  runs  its  course 
more  rapidly  than  the  former.  If  a  very  malignant  epidemic 
is  prevailing,  it  is  desirable  to  remove  and  completely  isolate 
children,  especially  if  they  be  delicate. 

Small-pox  [variola)  was  formerly  a  terrible  scourge. 
Nowadays,  it  causes  comparatively  few  deaths  ;  yet  numer- 
ous cases  occur  now  and  then  in  districts  where  sanitary 
precautions  are  disregarded.  It  is  most  common  in  winter 
and  spring.  The  colored  races  are  most  liable  to  it.  It 
rarely  attacks  those  who  have  been  vaccinated  within  a 
dozen  years,  and  the  cases  that  occur  among  the  vaccinated 
are  quite  mild  {varioloid). 

From  one-seventh  to  two-thirds  of  the  unvaccinated,  who 
are  attacked  by  small-pox,  die.  This  disease  is  not  always 
easy  to  recognize  in  the  beginning.  Accordingly,  suspicious 
cases  of  fever   accompanied   by  a  pustular   eruption   and 


SMALL-POX.       INFLUENZA  423 

back-ache  ought  to  be  very  carefully  watched,  especially  if 
known  to  have  been  exposed  to  the  infection.  Vaccination 
should  be  urgently  recommended,  particularly  when  an  epi- 
demic is  present  or  apprehended.  Some  statistics — those  of 
India,  for  instance — appear  to  show  that  vaccination  slightly 
lessens  the  tendency  to  other  diseases. 

Vaccination  is  an  invaluable  preventive  of  small-pox. 
The  clean  and  carefully  obtained  virus  from  the  calf  is  best 
for  general  use.  (See  page  394.)  The  operation  is  harm- 
less if  the  operator  be  cleanly  and  careful.  The  knife  or 
needle  used  needs  to  be  well  wiped  and  held  in  boiling 
water  for  a  minute  (and  allowed  to  cool)  before  using.  The 
portion  of  skin  selected  should  have  no  sign  of  disease. 
The  part  to  be  vaccinated  needs  to  be  washed  clean  and 
then  rinsed  with  water  that  has  been  boiled.  The  first 
vaccination  should  take  place  in  early  infancy.  The  second 
one  ought  not  as  a  rule  to  come  later  than  the  thirteenth 
year.     Not  more  than  two  vaccinations  are  needed. 

Rags  for  paper-making  sometimes  cause  small-pox,  and 
domestic  rags  seem  as  dangerous  as  those  that  are  imported. 
Rag-handlers  especially  require  vaccination.  Steam  is  a 
valuable  disinfectant  for  rags.  For  small-pox  cases  and  the 
places  where  they  have  been,  the  most  complete  isolation, 
cleanliness  and  disinfection  are  necessary. 

Influenza  (called  also  grippe  and  epidemic  catarrhal 
fever)  has  prevailed  epidemically  at  least  eleven  or  twelve 
times  during  the  last  century.  The  epidemic  that  began  in 
1889  proved  exceedingly  severe.  Unlike  the  infectious 
diseases  that  have  been  so  far  considered,  this  often  attacks 
the  same  person  a  second  time.  It  is  probably  due  to  bac- 
teria (Pfeiffer's)  ;  very  little  is  known  of  these  to  aid  one 
in  preventing  or  treating  the  disease.  There  is  no  sufficient 
evidence  to  support  the  belief  that  influenza  is  caused  by 
some  great  cosmic  or  climatic  influence. 


424 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


It  is  important  to  note  that  the  infection  of  this  disease 
does  not  travel  any  faster  than  the  human  beings  who  carry- 
it  can  travel.  Furthermore,  it  has  not  been  known  to  occur 
in  places  wholly  shut  off  from  contact  with  those  who  had 
themselves  received  the  infection  or  carried  it  in  their 
clothing  or  in  some  object.  Not  all  admit,  however,  that  it  is 
communicated  by  human  intercourse.  A  few  consider  that  it 
is  connected  in  some  way  with  a  similar  disease  of  the  horse. 

Influenza  is  usually  severest  during  the  six  or  ten  weeks 
of  mid- winter.  It  may  prevail  in  warmer  weather.  People 
who  have  lung  disease  (or  heart  defects)  and  also  the  aged 
or  weakly  have  most  to  fear  from  the  influenza  infection. 
It  is  most  fatal  when  lung  complications  exist  or  arise  in  the 
course  of  the  disease.  It  is  usually  much  more  serious  than 
an  ordinary  cold,  and  may  leave  behind  it  a  nervous  or 
other  weakness  which  lasts  for  a  varying  time.  Infants  and 
young  children  show  very  little  fatality  from  this  disease. 

Influenza  cannot  apparently  be  prevented  with  any  de- 
gree of  certainty  unless  absolute  isolation  be  possible.  For 
those  who  greatly  desire  to  escape  the  infection,  it  is  advis- 
able for  the  time  being  to  avoid  all  entertainments  and 
social  intercourse.  Since  schools  afford  a  means  of  diffus- 
ing the  disease,  they  may  at  times  need  to  be  closed. 

Pneumonia  (croupous  pneumonia)  has  for  more  than 
three  centuries  and  a  half  been  ranked  among  the  communi- 
cable diseases.  Of  the  various  longish  and  round  forms 
which  numerous  competent  investigators  have  identified 
with  the  causation  of  this  disease,  a  double  coccus  enclosed 
in  a  mucous  capsule  (see  Fig.  70)  is  most  common.  The 
same  form  occurs  also  in  many  cases  of  endocarditis  and 
cerebro-spinal  meningitis.  From  various  careful  experi- 
ments, we  know  that  the  matters  coughed  out,  or  which 
otherwise  come  from  the  mouths  of  patients  with  this  and 
other  diseases,  can  become  dried  to  dust  with  full  exposure 
to  light  and  air  for  days  and  yet  remain  very  infectious. 


PNEUMONIA.       TUBERCULOSIS  425 

Such  half-solid  matters  and  saliva  can  retain  their  viru- 
lence even  after  many  hours  of  exposure  to  direct  sunlight. 
Hence  it  is  proper  to  enjoin  caution  upon  attendants  lest 
they  fail  to  have  these  disease  products  always  enter  suit- 
able moist  receptacles  for  speedy  disinfection  by  burning  or 
by  the  use  of  a  five  per  cent,  acid  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

It  is  advisable  to  disinfect  the  room,  bed-clothing  and  gar- 
ments after  such  a  disease.  Especially  in  hotels  and  lodg- 
ing-houses is  it  necessary  to  attend  carefully  to  the  disinfec- 
tion and  isolation  of  infective  cases. 

Tuberculosis  (commonly  called  consumption  ox  phthisis) 
oftenest  attacks  the  lungs.  Hence  the  term,  when  not 
otherwise  qualified,  indicates  the  chronic,  destructive  dis- 
ease of  the  lungs.  In  young  children,  it  is  quite  liable 
to  occur  in  the  meningeal  layers  of  the  brain.  The  abdom- 
inal and  other  glands  are  frequently  invaded  by  this  dis- 
ease. Glandular  tuberculosis  is  often  called  scrofula.  Re- 
cent careful  autopsies  made,  by  Pizzoni  and  others,  upon  the 
bodies  of  people  apparently  free  from  the  disease  have 
showed  that,  in  more  than  two-fifths  of  these  cases,  the 
glands  or  other  organs  had  regularly  present,  in  a  latent 
state,  the  peculiar  bacteria  that  cause  tuberculosis. 

These  microorganisms  (discovered  by  Koch)  are  called 
the  bacilli  of  tuberculosis.     Their  length  is  usually  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-half  the  diameter  of  a  red  blood  corpuscle  (or 
from  2  to  5  7fiikrons).     They  are  very  often  slightly  curved 
and  are  even  more  slender  than  is  indicated  by       /^ 
Fig.  80.     They  may  contain   several  spores,  ap-      \\l(\  /jA/ 
pearing    as    glistening,   colorless    dots    in    these        \        ' 
slender  rods  when  staining  has  been  employed        x  noo. 
upon  them.    They  are  slow  to  take  up  the  aniline       ^^^-  ^°- 
colors  used  in   laboratory   work  ;  yet,  when  once  colored, 
they  resist  (more  than  do  other  bacteria)  the  decolorizing 
action  of  dilute  mineral  acids. 

These   bacilli  cause  "  consumption "  and   are   parasites, 


426  INFECTIOUS    DISEASES 

thriving  well  only  in  the  tissues  of  human  beings,  cattle  and 
some  other  animals.  Poultry  have  the  same  disease.  Goats 
hardly  ever  acquire  the  disease,  and  sheep  are  much  less 
liable  to  it  than  are  swine  or  cattle.  Steam-heat,  or  even  a 
lower  temperature  than  that,  quickly  destroys  the  germs  of 
tuberculosis.  Mercury  solutions,  usually  very  potent  against 
bacteria,  are  less  valuable  than  strong  carbolic  acid  solutions 
for  disinfecting  the  expectorations  of  consumptives.  Creo- 
sote and  the  chemical  products  allied  to  it  are  also  valuable 
against  these  bacteria.  In  expectorated  matters,  tuberculo- 
sis bacilli  may  remain  dangerously  alive  for  months  after 
they  have  become  dried.  They  can  also  live  very  long  amid 
vigorous  decomposition  bacteria. 

Exposure  to  abundant  daylight  (especially  sunlight),  with 
a  liberal  supply  of  fresh  air,  appears  to  destroy  the  bacilli 
of  tuberculosis  within  a  few  hours  or  days.  This  natural 
process  of  destroying  these  dangerous  germs  of  consump- 
tion is  much  more  active  in  open  streets  and  free  air-spaces 
than  in  closed  apartments.  Indeed,  the  infection  ordinarily 
comes  from  the  dust  of  crowded,  ill-ventilated  rooms,  that 
are  frequented  by  consumptives  who  are  careless  about  their 
expectorations. 

Since  the  greatest  element  of  danger  lies  in  the  innumer- 
able harmful  germs  that  are  coughed  out  of  the  lungs  of 
those  who  have  the  disease,  it  is  important  to  see  that  such 
matters  are  received  in  proper  receptacles  and  at  once  dis- 
infected. Spittoons  ought  to  be  easily  cleanable,  smooth 
and  simple  in  construction.  They  always  require  strong 
disinfectant  solutions  in  the  bottom  so  that  the  expectora- 
tions received  in  them  will  remain  moist  and  not  dry  up  to 
become  harmful  dust  that  will  carry  infection.  Five  per 
cent,  carbolic  acid  solutions  answer  the  purpose. 

YoxXkvQ portable  spittoons,  \^dX  all  consumptives  ought  to 
be  required  to  carry  about  and  invariably  use,  a  little  ''  ex- 
celsior "  or  oakum  may  be  used  in  the  bottom  to  prevent 


PRECAUTIONS    AGAINST    TUBERCULOSIS  427 

splashing  of  the  disinfectant  solution.  These  receptacles 
may  be  of  varnished  pasteboard  (and  therefore  inexpensive) 
so  that  they  can  be  burned  with  their  contents  and  not  used 
a  second  time.  It  is  wrong  to  use  handkerchiefs  or  dry 
cloths  for  receiving  expectorations  unless  to  be  at  once  dis- 
infected (by  boiling  or  by  the  use  of  chemicals)  or  burned. 
The  sawdust-filled  spittoons,  common  in  manufactories  and 
taverns,  are  similarly  objectionable,  apart  from  the  danger 
of  fire  that  accompanies  their  use. 

All  expectorations  should,  as  above  said,  be  received  in  a 
disinfectant  solution,  if  not  to  be  immediately  sterilized  by 
steam  or  burned.  Not  only  do  such  precautions  lessen  very 
greatly  the  danger  of  infection  to  others,  but  also  the 
sufferer  from  the  disease  is  thereby  somewhat  less  liable  to 
receive  further  infection.  The  bowel  discharges  from  those 
who  have  tuberculosis  of  the  intestine  contain  the  infective 
bacilli  in  abundance  ;  yet  they  are  a  very  much  less  serious 
element  of  danger  than  are  coughed-up  matters.  Whatever 
is  coughed  up  ought  not  to  be  swallowed  ;  for  secondary 
tuberculosis  of  the  intestines  may  therefrom  be  produced. 

The  infection  of  tuberculosis  enters  the  body  most 
frequently  through  weaknesses  in  the  lung  surfaces  after 
bronchial  catarrhs  and  other  diseases.  Very  reliable  ob- 
servers have  found  that  the  bacilli  can  apparently  enter  the 
system  through  healthy  mucous  membranes  (as  of  the  lung 
surface  or  stomach);  yet  such  is  not  the  rule.  When  these 
bacteria  enter  the  stomach,  they  are  not  always  destroyed, 
but  occasionally  cause  infection.  Hence  the  importance  of 
not  using,  in  an  uncooked  state,  any  meat  or  milk  that  come 
from  diseased  animals. 

If  a  few  harmful  germs  enter  the  system,  they  may  be  de- 
stroyed by  the  chemical  and  vital  activity  of  the  body 
tissues.  If  not  thus  destroyed,  they  may  remain  "  latent  "  in 
the  system  for  an  indefinite  time,  to  multiply  and  enter 
more   or   less   extensively  upon   their   destructive   activity 


428  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

whenever  the  system  is  weakened  by  disease,  privation,  ex- 
cesses or  other  influences.  Even  then,  the  disease  manifes- 
tations produced  by  these  microorganisms,  if  not  very 
extensive,  may  wholly  cease  under  proper  hygienic  sur- 
roundings. An  open-air  life  in  a  high,  dry  and  sunny  region 
or  in  a  suitable  ocean  climate  tends  to  restrict  or  cure  the 
disease.     (See  page  35.) 

Hereditary  and  acquired  weaknesses  render  a  person,  who 
is  exposed  to  the  infection,  more  liable  to  become  con- 
sumptive or  to  develop  "  scrofula,"  joint  disease  or  other 
forms  of  tuberculosis.  The  bacilli  are  only  one  of  the 
factors  in  the  causation  of  the  disease,  although  exceedingly 
important.  Consumption  is  probably  not  very  often  in- 
herited in  the  way  in  which  it  was  thought  to  be  prior  to 
and  even  long  after  the  demonstration  by  Villemin  (in  1865) 
that  tuberculosis  was  a  communicable  disease. 

Recent  studies  by  Gartner  and  others  appear,  however,  to 
show  that  a  small  percentage  of  cases  are  probably  trans- 
mitted to  the  offspring  before  birth.  The  infection  in  such 
cases  seems  to  be  inherited  from  the  mother  rather  than 
from  the  father.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  the  infec- 
tion may  fairly  be  considered  to  be  acquired  after  birth. 
Some  people  are  born  with  apparent  susceptibility  to  the 
disease.  Their  lungs  and  other  organs  seem  unable  to  resist 
the  infection  unless  under  exceptionally  good  hygienic  con- 
ditions. 

Most  of  us  are  to  a  varying  extent  exposed  to  this  as  to 
other  infections  by  reason  of  the  prevalence  of  unclean  dust 
and  other  unhealthful  influences.  Hence  the  importance  of 
removing  the  harmful  conditions  that  we  can  control.  The 
general  health  ought  always  to  be  cared  for.  Inoculations 
with  the  culture  "lymph"  which  Koch  introduced  have, 
unfortunately,  after  the  most  thorough  trial,  proved  unsatis- 
factory. Yet  they  seem  of  value  as  a  means  of  recognizing 
tuberculosis  in  cattle. 


PREVENTION    OF    INFECTION  429 

From  what  has  here  been  outlined,  the  measures  to  be 
employed  toward  insuring  prevention  of  tuberculosis  ought 
to  be  obvious.  Cleanliness  in  work-places,  public  rooms, 
conveyances  and  elsewhere  ;  with  careful  disinfection  of 
whatever  comes  from  a  victim  of  the  disease,  and  scientific 
cleanliness  wherever  such  a  person  is, — all  these  measures 
are  needed  in  order  to  destroy  the  infection.  On  a  dry  site 
and  at  a  high  altitude,  it  flourishes  least.  The  importance 
of  thorough  cooking  of  milk  or  meat  of  suspicious  origin  is 
explained  elsewhere.  All  slaughter-houses  should  be  under 
the  supervision  of  public  officials.  The  value  of  gentle 
chest  gymnastics  as  a  preventive  is  unquestioned.  For 
climatic  indications,  see  pages  ;^^  to  37. 

Leprosy  is  a  very  rare  disease  with  us.  Yet  it  deserves 
mention  for  the  reason  that  it  is  on  the  increase  and  cases 
are  occasionally  brought  here.  It  is  due  to  a  bacillus  ex- 
ceedingly like  that  of  tuberculosis ;  but  it  is  at  any  rate  a 
much  less  infectious  disease  than  that.  Many  of  the  ablest 
observers  question  whether  it  be  communicable  at  all.  The 
(1893)  report  of  the  Leprosy  Commission  in  India  states 
that  the  risk  of  contagion  is  very  small,  and  that  ^s^  and 
sa/f  food  do  not  cause  the  disease.  Special  predisposition 
to  the  disease  is  regarded  as  a  quite  important  factor.  The 
observance  of  strict  cleanliness,  the  use  of  cooked  food  and 
all  avoidance  of  immediate  contact  with  lepers  or  objects 
that  they  have  used  insures  immunity  from  the  disease. 

Cerebro-spinal  meningitis  is  to  be  classed  with  the 
above-mentioned  diseases,  as  one  that  calls  for  the  adoption 
of  precautions  to  prevent  its  spread  whenever  it  is  present. 
Cases  ought  to  be  isolated  as  well  as  is  possible.  Disinfec- 
tion is  needed. 


DISINFECTION.     RESTRICTION    OP 
COMMUNICABLE    DISEASES 

To  restrict  infectious  diseases,  the  most  important  meas- 
ure is  an  insistance  upon  rigorous  cleanliness.  Not  merely 
is  visible  and  obnoxious  filth  to  be  kept  away,  but  of  much 
greater  consequence  is  the  exclusion  and  annihilation  of 
the  subtler  and  more  dangerous  kinds  of  uncleanliness  that 
result  from  and  produce  disease.  The  pages  just  preceding 
are  intended  to  aid  the  comprehension  of  these  causes  of 
infection.  The  present  chapter  considers  the  practical 
means  for  annihilating  such  infection  as  is  present,  and  of 
preventing  any  further  disease  invasion. 

Besides  localizing,  isolating  and  then  stamping  out  any 
immediate  source  and  cause  of  infection,  the  entrance  of 
any  disease  from  without  and  the  possibility  of  its  further 
extension  when  it  has  reached  us  must  be  guarded  against. 
The  practice  of  measures  to  effect  the  exclusion  of  disease 
is  spoken  of,  in  a  general  way,  as  quara7itme. 

General  and  special  measures  are  required,  wherever  indi- 
cated, in  order  to  lessen  the  liability  of  individuals  and  com- 
munities, as  well  as  of  localities,  to  receive  and  foster  infec- 
tion. In  addition  to  the  general  recommendations  given 
elsewhere  in  this  book,  a  special  consideration  of  practical 
disinfection  is  required. 

Disinfection  means  in  any  case  the  total  destruction  of 
life  in  the  low  organisms  which  can  perpetuate  and  commu- 
nicate an  infectious  disease.  Sterilization,  as  we  have  seen 
in  speaking  of  the  "  Pasteurization  "  of  milk  (see  page  385), 
may  be  incomplete  and  yet  satisfactory  to  the  hygienist ; 
for  the  infection,  that  the  milk  may  possibly  have  contained, 


DISINFECTANTS    AND    DEODORIZERS  43I 

has  been  destroyed  by  the  heating,  even  though  some  harm- 
less bacteria  may  have  remained  aHve.  Disinfection,  how- 
ever, must  always  be  complete.  That  is,  the  sterilizing 
process  must  have  been  carried  far  enough  to  insure  the 
destruction  of  all  germs  of  disease.  The  use  of  disinfecting 
solutions  that  are  too  weak  is  worse  than  using  none  at  all  ; 
for  it  gives  a  false  reliance.  Sprinkling  people  with  carbolic 
acid  does  not  remove  infection  from  them. 

Deodorizers  are  not  to  be  recommended  as  effective 
against  an  infectious  disease  unless  at  the  same  time  they 
are  potent  disinfectants.  An  agent  which  simply  lessens  or 
overpowers  an  odor  without  destroying  the  cause,  if  that  cause 
be  harmful,  is  as  a  rule  an  unsafe  reliance.  Of  this  class 
are  most  of  the  proprietary  articles  that  are  lavishly  recom- 
mended by  those  who  sell  them,  and  which  even  appear  to 
be  endorsed  by  some  physicians.  Simpler,  safer  and  less 
expensive  means  answer  the  same  purpose.  Chloride  of 
lime  has  the  merit  of  both  removing  odors  very  efficiently 
and  at  the  same  time  serving  as  a  disinfectant  when  fresh 
and  strong  enough. 

If,  for  instance,  charcoal  or  dried  and  powdered  loam 
be  freely  sprinkled  over  the  matters  that  have  passed  from 
the  bowels  of  a  patient  having  typhoid  fever  or  cholera,  the 
odor  is  lessened  or  it  wholly  ceases.  The  matters  are  then 
said  to  be  deodorized.  The  bacteria  of  disease  are  not 
thereby  destroyed,  but  may  live  for  a  time  in  a  dangerous 
form.  Being  dried,  they  do  not  then  increase  or  give  off 
odor.  After  days  or  months,  the  natural  disinfectant  power 
of  fresh  air  and  light  will  have  destroyed  the  harmful  germs. 
The  natural  process  is  more  or  less  certain,  although  too 
slow  to  be  considered  safe. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  sufficient  amount  of  fresh  milk 
of  lime  (or  of  any  other  suitable  disinfectant  solution)  be 
added  to  the  dangerous  disease  discharges,  this  soon  kills 
all  the  harmful  bacteria  that  make  these  matters  a  possible 


432  DISINFECTION,    ETC. 

source  of  further  disease.  Disinfectants  must  always  be 
strong  enough  to  effect  the  desired  sterilization  of  the  dis- 
ease germs  against  which  they  are  used.  Rapidity  of  action 
is  also  important. 

Sunlight  and  fresh  air  are  disinfectant  forces  of 
considerable  efficacy.  Yet  they  are  not  to  be  relied  upon 
when  the  object  is  to  annihilate  speedily  the  infectious  ele- 
ment in  any  case.  We  cannot  be  assured  that  these  valu- 
able natural  means  have  acted  upon  the  disease  germs 
under  entirely  suitable  conditions  in  every  instance.  Thus, 
if  they  be  in  masses  and  surrounded  by  various  matters, 
certain  germs  of  disease  can  resist  the  action  of  air  and 
light  for  many  weeks  or  months. 

Cholera  germs,  however,  seem  very  sensitive  to  these 
influences  combined  with  drying.  Much  more  certain  in 
their  working  are  heat  and  chem.icals.  With  these  means, 
we  can  be  absolutely  sure  that  our  disinfection  is  complete. 
Yet  sunlight  and  fresh  air  are  always  to  be  employed  as 
accessories  whenever  possible. 

Water,  freely  flowing  over  a  surface,  will  have  removed 
very  many  of  the  bacteria  that  may  chance  to  have  been 
there.  We  know,  by  experiment,  that  if  a  clean  bottle  be 
rinsed  out  with  water  having  many  bacteria  in  it  and  then 
emptied,  very  few  of  the  bacteria  cling  to  the  sides  of  the 
bottle.  However  unclean  they  may  be,  the  hands,  when 
washed  in  the  ordinary  manner  with  soap  and  a  brush  and 
then  rinsed,  have  remaining  upon  them  very  few  of  the  bac- 
teria that  were  upon  the  skin  and  under  the  nails  in  their 
unclean  condition.  Yet  when  extreme  cleanliness  is  de- 
manded, as  for  a  serious  surgical  operation,  several  further 
rinsings  in  suitable  disinfectants  (as  in  a  i  to  looo  corro- 
sive sublimate  solution)  are  needed  so  that  no  germs  that 
can  cause  wound  infection  shall  remain  alive  upon  the 
hands. 

Mechanical  removal  by  such  means  as  beating,  shak- 


MECHANICAL    MEANS.       HEAT  433 

ing,  brushing  and  wiping  carpets  and  other  articles  of  furni- 
ture and  clothing,  disposes  of  many  of  the  germs  that  may 
be  upon  and  in  these  objects.  Yet  many  of  these  germs 
may  remain  within  the  fabric.  In  any  case,  a  liberal  expos- 
ure to  sunlight  and  fresh  air  should  follow  the  mechanical 
attempts  at  removal  of  the  infectious  elements.  It  must 
further  be  borne  in  mind  that  such  means  are  liable  to 
diffuse  the  danger  by  scattering  the  shaken-out  germs  upon 
various  people  and  places.  Since  we  lack  scientific  evi- 
dence of  the  value  of  immersion  in  naphtha  (which  is  some- 
times used)  for  such  infected  articles  as  carpets  and  furni- 
ture, heat  or  suitable  chemicals  ought  always  to  be  preferred 
if  permissible  for  the  disinfection  of  these  things. 

Burning  readily  and  effectively  disposes  of  objects  that 
are  infected.  For  small,  valueless  articles  and  worthless 
clothing,  this  means  is  especially  serviceable.  In  order  that 
no  infective  germs  be  shaken  off  while  articles  are  being 
removed  to  the  destroying  fire,  it  is  well  that  they  be 
wrapped  in  moist  cloth  (or  paper).  Heat  has  already  been 
spoken  of  (on  page  385).  It  is  the  best  of  all  disinfect- 
ants wherever  practicable.  When  used  to  treat  ordinary 
clothing  and  utensils,  heat  is  an  excellent  destroyer  of  all 
infectious  germs.  Yet  articles  of  leather,  fur,  whalebone  or 
rubber  shrink  when  exposed  to  such  warmth  and  are  there- 
fore usually  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  (i  to  2000) 
solution. 

Woollen  goods  suffer  somewhat  with  high  heat ;  but  when 
seriously  infected,  they  are  generally  best  treated  by  that 
means.  In  such  a  case  the  temperature  of  the  hot  water 
used  must  not  at  any  time  be  below  175°  F.,  and  the  goods 
ought  to  be  kept  in  that  for  half  an  hour.  Steam,  acting 
for  nearly  the  same  time,  is  preferable.  Before  the  garments 
are  heated,  any  spots  that  have  recently  been  produced  upon 
cloth  by  medicines,  blood,  discharges,  etc.,  ought  to  be 
moistened  with  a  very  weak  solution  of  permanganate  of 
28 


434 


DISINFECTION,    ETC. 


potash  (one-fourth  of  a  grain  to  the  ounce  of  water).  Thus 
the  spots  are  rendered  less  liable  to  become  fixed  in  the 
fabric. 

Moist  heat  is  more  effective  than  dry  heat,  both 
being  of  the  same  high  temperature.  Hence  superheated 
steam  is  made  use  of  for  disinfecting-stations  where  rapid 
but  thorough  work  is  to  be  done.  In  such  places,  a  tightly 
closing,  strongly  constructed  chamber  (represented  by  E  in 


Fig.  8i. 


Fig.  ^'^  is  used  to  hold  the  clothing,  bedding,  etc.,  during 
the  process. 

Such  a  steam-chamber  with  the  accompanying  boiler  can 
also  be  made  portable.  (See  Fig.  8i.)  This  can  be  hauled 
to  a  camp  or  to  an  infected  tenement  or  lodging-house  or 
elsewhere.  It  can  be  used  for  disinfecting  bedding  and 
clothing  or  anything  else  that  can  be  put  in  it  and  is  con- 
sidered proper  for  steam  disinfection.     When  the  door  at 


STEAM    APPARATUS 


435 


the  rear  is  opened,  a  rack  or  other  arrangement  similar  to 
that  shown  in  Fig.  8;^  is  run  out  for  receiving  the  articles 
to  be  steamed. 

The  value  of  such  appliances  has  frequendy  been  demonstrated 
in  France  and  Germany  during  the  last  few  years.  They  have  re- 
cently been  introduced  into  the  United  States.  The  cost  of  the 
complete  portable  apparatus  delivered  in  America  exceeds  a  thousand 
dollars. 

The  disinfecting  chambers  shown  in  Figs.  8i  and  83  are  constructed 
by  Geneste,  Herscher  &  Co.,  of  Paris.  Similar  ones  are  made  in 
Chemnitz  and  elsewhere  in  Germany.  The  Parisian  firm  gives  figures 
showing  the  average  cost  of  steam  disinfection.  From  these,  we  learn 
that  the  use  of  the  por^adk  dis- 
infector  (shown  in  Fig.  81) 
makes  the  complete  disinfec- 
tion of  each  mattress  cost  less 
than  9  cents  (43  centimes)  in 
Paris.  The  apparatus  is  in 
this  estimate  supposed  to  be 
used  for  ten  hours  per  day. 
In  that  time,  from  twenty  to 
thirty  mattresses  could  be  dis- 
infected. 

The  cost  of  disinfecting  one 
ton  (2,200  pounds)  of  bed- 
clothes, clothing,  etc.,  in  the  ten 
hours  would  be  a  little  more 
than  two  dollars  (10.70  francs). 
With  a  ^xed  apparatus,  such 
as  is  shown  in  Fig.  83,  the  cost 
is  less  than  half  of  that. 

For  laboratory  purposes  as 
also  for  sterilizing  bandages, 
surgical  instruments,  etc.,  we 
use  a  strongly  constructed 
steamer  {autoclave),  tightly  clos- 
ing like  the  larger  ones  and 
also  having  a  safety-valve  ar- 
rangement to  prevent  danger  from  an  excess  of  pressure  due  to  the 
superheated  steam.     (See  Fig.  82.) 


Fig.  82. 


436  DISINFECTION,    ETC. 

For  domestic  use,  and  for  most  ordinary  purposes,  a 
wash-boiler  of  hot  water  or  any  simple  steamer,  if  large 
enough  and  manageable,  serves  nearly  as  well  as  the  more 
elaborate  apparatus  would.  A  big  kettle  of  boiling  water 
answers  for  cotton  goods  and  other  articles  that  hot  water 
will  not  injure.  A  closed,  steam-jacket  kettle  works  admira- 
bly for  institutions. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  higher  the  temperature, 
the  less  time  is  required  in  order  to  effect  complete  dis- 
infection. The  looser  and  more  open  articles  are  and  the 
less  they  are  packed  together,  the  more  readily  does  the 
sterilizing  hot  water  or  steam  penetrate  into  all  parts. 
When  tightly  bundled  up  or  baled  (like  rags),  more  than 
half  an  hour  of  steaming  should  be  allowed. 

In  less  than  ten  minutes  after  the  temperature  of  212° 
has  been  reached  in  the  interior  of  bundles,  all  infection 
must  have  been  destroyed.  Yet  a  full  half  hour  ought  to 
be  allowed  in  order  to  be  certain  that  the  heat  has  pene- 
trated sufficiently.  Electric  thermometers  are  best  for 
testing  steam  disinfection.  By  these,  a  bell  is  made  to  sound 
automatically  as  soon  as  a  desired  temperature  is  reached. 

An  advantage  of  the  more  elaborate  steam  apparatus  is 
that,  if  it  be  desired,  the  articles  can  there  be  heated  with 
dry  heat  for  a  few  minutes  before  the  steam  is  introduced, 
as  well  as  after  the  steaming  has  ceased.  When  the  cloth- 
ing and  other  articles  are  thus  warmed  in  advance,  the 
efficacy  of  the  steam  is  increased  and  there  is  no  moisten- 
ing of  the  articles  by  condensation  of  the  steam  upon  them. 

This  dry  heat  can  be  produced  by  means  of  a  steam- 
jacket  as  a  casing  to  the  steam-chamber.  Into  this  jacket, 
steam  can  be  preliminarily  introduced  independently  of  that 
which  goes  into  the  interior  where  the  infected  articles  are 
treated.  Thus  the  inside  can  be  made  hot  even  without 
any  steam  being  introduced,  and  whatever  steam  is  in  there 
can  be  superheated  by  means  of  the  jacket-steam  heat  if 


USE    OF    STEAM    ON    A    LARGE    SCALE 


437 


desired.  After  superheated  steam  (having  a  temperature  of 
230°  F.)  has  been  used,  the  articles  in  the  steam-chamber 
are  found  dry.  In  these  disinfectors,  the  steam  enters  from 
above,  and  the  cool  air  is  driven  out  through  an  opening  at 
the  bottom.  This  opening  is  closed  shortly  after  the  steam 
begins  to  enter. 

Disinfecting  stations  may  be  constructed  upon  the  plan 
sketched  in  Fig.  84.  That  is  based  on  the  arrangements  at 
the  model  establishment  in  Berlin.  The  boiler  may  be  located 
nearer  the  steam-chamber,  and  may  be  in  a  cellar.  The 
sterilizing  steam-chamber    (marked  E  in  Fig.  83)  is  open 


Fig.  83. 

at  both  ends  and  is  placed  in  the  wall  between  the  discharg- 
ing room  and  the  receiving  room. 

From  the  latter  room,  clothing,  bedding  and  other  articles 
to  be  disinfected  are  hung  upon  or  laid  on  a  cage  or  rack 
drawn  out  from  the  steam-chamber.  The  rack  (to  the 
left  of  the  letter  C,  in  Fig.  83)  is  then  returned  into  the 
steam-chamber  which  thereupon  has  both  doors  tightly 
closed.  Steam  at  a  temperature  of  230°  F.  or  higher  (that 
is  to  say,  under  a  pressure  exceeding  twenty  pounds)  is  then 
driven  into  it  for  half  an  hour  after  the  thermometer  shows 
that  the  interior,  with  its  contents,  has  reached  a  temperature 
of  at  least  140°  F. 


43^' 


DISINFECTION,    ETC. 


After  that,  this  thereby  sterilized  chamber  is  opened  by- 
unfastening  and  swinging  back  the  door  into  the  discharging 
7'oom^  the  rack  containing  the  clothing,  etc.,  is  drawn  out 
and  the  disinfected  articles  are  removed  This  rack  is  at 
once  returned  to  the  steam-chamber,  the  door  of  that  is 
closed  and  other  infected  articles  may  then  be  put  in  from 
the  receiving  room  to  undergo  in  their  turn  the  same  process. 

While  their  clothing  is  being  sterilized,  the  people  are 
being  conducted  in  a  roundabout  way  through  bath-rooms 
where  they  are  bathed  and  thoroughly  cleansed.  In  Fig. 
84,   the  longer  dots  show  the  route  of  the  persons  to  be 


\y////////////A 


'////'/'/'/'//y/yyz^ 


v//Ay//////y//& 


DISCHARQINq 

Room 


imd 


SCAUE,  1:    no 


Fig.  84. 


cleaned.  The  articles  to  be  disinfected  go  through  the 
steam-chamber  as  indicated  by  the  shorter  dots.  The  bath- 
room ought  to  be  more  commodious.  Shower  baths  are 
the  most   convenient  kind  for  such  places. 

For  buildings,  soil-pipes,  and  other  places  where  it  can 
be  introduced  and  held  sufficiently  to  maintain  a  prolonged 
high  temperature,  moist  heat  is  exceedingly  efficient  as  a 
disinfector.  Yet  it  is  not  always  practicable  for  such  situa- 
tions, since  it  causes  damage  to  some  materials  by  inducing 
expansion.  Besides  this,  steam  or  other  heat  may  cause 
paint  to  *'  blister  up  "  and  is  apt  to  make  the  pitchy  matters 


DISINFECTION    BY    MEANS    OF    CHEMICALS  439 

run  out  of  resinous  woods.  For  many  purposes,  accord- 
ingly, we  have  to  employ  chemical  disinfectants. 

Chemical  disinfectants  are  spoken  of  on  pages  386 
to  :^8S.  Others,  such  as  permanganate  of  potash,  peroxide 
of  hydrogen  and  numerous  substances  known  to  scientists, 
are  not  discussed  there  or  here  because  they  are  either  too 
expensive  for  general  use,  or  they  are  demonstrably  inferior 
or  will  probably  be  shown  to  be  so  when  more  fully  tested. 
Only  the  disinfectants  of  actual  superiority  deserve  to  be 
considered  here.  Chloride  of  zinc  will  not  be  especially 
commended,  since  most  competent  observers  discredit  it. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  various  proprietary  disinfectants 
which  certain  interested  experimenters  praise  highly. 

It  is  proper  that  all  chemical  disinfectants  bear  the  label 
POISON  in  order  to  lessen  the  liability  to  accidents  which 
occasionally  result  from  ignorance  or  carelessness  in  their 
use.  Poisoning  from  ordinary  disinfectants  is  not  uncom- 
mon. The  addition  of  harmless  colors  is  of  value  for 
disinfectant  solutions.  The  poison  label  must  however 
always  be  insisted  upon.  The  hands  ought  not  to  be  kept 
in  contact  with  these  chemicals.  Some  of  them  injure  the 
skin  very  much. 

Corrosive  sublimate  {bichloride  of  mercury^  HgCQ  is 
our  most  valuable  chemical  disinfectant.  It  was  spoken  of 
on  page  387.  It  is  very  potent  and  relatively  inexpensive 
as  compared  with  carbolic  acid  ;  yet  it  is  more  poisonous 
than  most  chemicals.  Practically  it  is  not  very  quickly 
soluble  in  water.  So  we  add  ammonic  chloride  or  common 
salt  to  improve  it  in  this  respect.  By  the  addition  to  it 
of  five  times  its  weight  of  common  salt,  a  mercury  salt  is 
formed  which  is  more  effective  against  the  germs  of  disease, 
chiefly  because  the  compound  does  not  so  readily  coagulate 
albuminous  matters  that  may  be  about  the  germs  and 
which,  when  coagulated,  prevent  somewhat  the  action  of  the 
chemical. 


44©  DISINFECTION,    ETC. 

The  standard  disinfectant  solution  of  this  salt  is  of  the 
strength  of  one  part  to  one  thousand  of  water.  For  this, 
we  take  a  little  more  than  one  drachm  (sixty  grains)  of 
corrosive  sublimate  (to  which  the  same  amount  of  ammonic 
chloride  may  be  added  for  increasing  the  solubility  and 
efficacy)  and  with  this  five  drachms  of  common  salt.  These 
are  dissolved  by  stirring  well  with  one  gallon  of  warm  water 
in  a  wooden  pail  or  a  non-corrodible  vessel.  Corrosive 
sublimate  attacks   metallic  surfaces. 

This  makes  a  solution  slightly  weaker  than  i  to  looo. 
Yet  it  answers  the  purpose.  On  a  large  scale,  one  pound 
(avoirdupois)  of  corrosive  sublimate  suffices  exactly  for 
adding  (preferably  with  salt)  to  one  hundred  (imperial)  gal- 
lons of  water,  thus  making  the  standard  solution.  Physi- 
cians (for  their  own  use)  find  it  convenient  to  carry  a  twenty 
per  cent,  solution  of  the  salt  in  alcohol  and  to  dilute  this 
fifty  or  one  hundred  times  when  needed. 

For  ordinary  purposes,  a  corrosive  sublimate  solution  of 
I  to  2000,  that  is  to  say,  half  as  strong  as  the  standard 
solution,  is  the  weakest  that  should  be  used.  For  the  dis- 
infection of  discharges,  the  standard  solution  is  required,  as 
this  becomes  diluted  by  being  added  to  the  infected  fluids. 

Carbolic  acid  was  spoken  of  on  page  386.  It  does  not 
corrode  metals  to  any  extent.  For  disinfection,  we  use  the 
best  quaHty  and  in  the  strength  of  five  per  cent.,  which  is 
practically  all  that  water  will  dissolve.  As  with  all  other 
solutions,  we  prefer  for  this  that  the  water  be  distilled  or  at 
least  filtered  clear.  If  not  to  be  used  for  surgical  instru- 
ments or  other  metallic  surfaces,  the  carbolic  solution  is 
more  effective  when  half  of  one  per  cent,  of  hydrochloric 
acid  (or  one  per  cent,  of  tartaric  acid)  is  added  to  it. 

Lysol  and  various  proprietary  coal-tar  products  show  good 
results  in  some  cases  ;  but  the  better  tested  agents  are 
preferable.  Crude  carbolic  acid  is  of  value  because  of  the 
cresol  in  it,  but  is  fit  only  for  coarse  uses.     These  products 


CHEMICAL    DISINFECTANTS  441 

should  have  stood  for  one  day  with  equal  amounts  of  strong 
sulphuric  acid  before  a  solution  of  them  is  made.  Solutol 
(alkaline  cresol)  is  highly  recommended  by  some  observers. 

Crude  sulphuric  acid  or  hydrochloric  acid  may  be 
classed  among  the  very  strongest  and  most  valuable  disin- 
fectants. (See  page  386.)  Being  corrosive,  they  should  not 
come  into  contact  with  metals,  and  are  to  be  handled  as 
dangerous  poisons.  They  are  to  be  used  in  the  strength  of 
at  least  one  fluid  ounce  to  the  quart  of  the  discharges  to  be 
disinfected.  Thus,  a  large  wineglassful  is  to  be  added  for 
every  two  quarts  of  cholera  discharges.  It  is  to  be  well 
mixed  into  the  discharges  and  preferably  allowed  to  stand 
for  several  hours,  if  that  can  easily  be  managed. 

Quicklime  and  chloride  of  lime,  when  very  fresh,  are 
most  valuable  disinfectants.  One  per  cent,  solutions  of 
these  will  destroy  many  kinds  of  bacteria.  Yet  it  is  best  to 
employ  them  in  greater  strength.  To  prepare  milk  of  lime, 
fresh  quicklime  is  put  into  about  four  times  its  bulk  of 
water  (a  little  over  two  pounds  being  allowed  for  a  gallon). 
Milk  of  lime,  recently  prepared,  may  be  added  directly  to 
the  matters  to  be  disinfected.  It  acts  most  speedily  and 
thoroughly  if  well  mixed  in,  as  with  a  stick.  One  part  is  to  be 
allowed  for  ten  times  its  bulk  of  typhoid  or  other  discharges, 
although  somewhat  weaker  solutions  are  effective  upon  long 
standing.  When  poured  into  water-closets,  care  must  be 
taken  that  abundant  water  be  used  some  hours  afterward, 
so  that  no  obstruction  be  formed  in  the  pipes. 

Sulphur  fumigations,  though  familiar  and  venerable, 
are  less  valuable  than  they  are  generally  considered.  We 
feel  safer  when  other  disinfectants  are  also  used  with  the 
sulphur  gas.  Even  for  destroying  vermin  in  old  wooden 
houses,  it  is  well  that  at  the  same  time  corrosive  sublimate 
or  some  other  agent  be  employed.  Where  sulphur-burning 
is  rehed  upon,  the  floors,  walls,  furniture  and  other  parts  of 
the   room   to  be  fumigated  should  always  have  been  pre- 


442  DISINFECTION,    ETC. 

viously  moistened  (as  with  corrosive  sublimate  solution  or 
water).  All  crevices  and  outlets  of  the  room  must  have 
been  stopped  up. 

Three  or  more  pounds  of  sulphur  are  required  for  every 
thousand  cubic  feet  of  room-space,  whether  cracked  "  brim- 
stone "  or  the  convenient  prepared  sulphur  '*  tapers  "  be 
employed.  Usually,  roll  sulphur  is  broken  up  and  put  on 
shallow  metal  surfaces,  supported  (by  wire  or  otherwise) 
above  tubs  or  other  containers  of  water.  Alcohol  is  then 
poured  upon  the  sulphur  and  set  fire  to  by  matches.  When 
the  sulphur  has  begun  to  burn,  every  one  must  have  left  the 
room.  The  closed  door  should  then  be  tightly  stopped  up 
from  outside  with  rags  or  by  pasting  large  sheets  of  paper 
over  the  entire  door-opening.  The  room  is  to  remain  un- 
opened for  several  days  after  this  fumigation. 

For  cleaning  papered  "walls  of  an  infected  room, 
V.  Esmarch's  method  appears  after  many  trials  to  be  a  very 
good  one.  This  consists  in  using  thick,  freshly  cut  (but  not 
very  moist)  slices  of  quite  fresh  bread  to  wipe  systematically 
every  part  of  the  wall.  Although  expensive,  this  effects  the 
removal  of  bacteria.  The  slices  must  be  used  lavishly  and 
(with  all  crumbs  and  gathered  dirt)  carefully  collected  upon 
sheets  of  paper.  No  crumbs  are  to  be  left  on  the  wall. 
Bread,  paper  and  dirt  are  all  to  be  speedily  consumed  by 
fire.  Moist  sponges  and  cloths  appear  nearly  if  not  quite 
as  effective  for  the  purpose.  They  are  more  destructive  of 
delicate  wall  coverings. 

Walls  and  ceilings  of  public  rooms,  vessels,  etc.,  can  be  very  satis- 
factorily treated  by  the  preliminary  employment  of  disinfectant  solu- 
tions propelled  against  the  surface  in  the  form  of  a  fine  spray  or  mist. 
If  the  room-air  be  not  too  dry,  this  spray  will  remain  as  a  moist  film 
upon  the  surface  and  thus  act  to  destroy  the  infection.  If  such  a  spray 
be  allowed  to  dry  immediately  upon  being  applied,  and  the  wall  or 
ceiling  does  not  remain  moist  for  any  time,  the  infection  may  not  be 
entirely  destroyed.     All  germs  of  disease  are  not  instantly  killed  upon 


TO    DISINFECT    WALLS 


443 


being  moistened  with  a  disinfectant  solution.  The  longer  they  are 
kept  wet  by  it.  the  more  certainly  will  they  be  destroyed.  Moistening 
restricts   bacteria   from   flying 


about. 

For  producing  this  spray  of 
carbolic  acid  or  other  solution, 
an  aiotnizej'  is  used  resem- 
bling the  one  shown  in  Fig.  85. 
The  use  of  corrosive  sublimate 
solutions,  which  are  found  very 
valuable  against  diphtheria  and 
other  infections,  would  corrode 
any  metal  parts.  Therefore, 
non-corrodible  tips  ought 
always  to  be  employed  on  such 
spray  producers.  The  same 
principle  (of  disinfecting  by  the 
use  of  copious  sprays)  is  applied 
on  a  much  larger  scale.  Thus, 
large  wagons  are  constructed 
(of  the  size  of  that  shown  in 
Fig.  81)  which  use  steam  power 
to  drive  disinfectant  sprays 
against  and  into  all  parts  of 
railway  cars,  markets,  etc. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  tip  of 
such  a  spray-producing  tube 
when  in  use  be,  as  is  shown 
in  the  figure,  within  less  than 
a  yard  of  the  ceiling.  If  more 
than  two  yards  away,  it  is 
much  less  effective. 

On  paint,  for  instance  V^ 
that  of  walls  and  ceilings,  ^ 
cleansing  is  best  done  by  '^'   ^' 

washing  down  the  surfaces  with  five  per  cent,  solution  of 
carbolic  acid  (or  i  to  1000  corrosive  sublimate  solution). 
Large  amounts  must  be  used  and  the  sponges  or  mop-cloths 
frequently  changed  by  being  dropped  moist  into  pails  of  the 


444 


DISINFECTION,    ETC. 


solution,  and  fresh  cloths  then  used.  The  application  of  fresh 
paint  has  been  shown  to  be  an  adequate  means  of  destroying 
all  germs  of  disease  present  upon  surfaces  or  wherever  the 
paint  can  reach.  Whitewashed  surfaces  should  receive  abun- 
dant, strong  whitewash  as  simply  and  freshly  prepared  from 
fresh  quicklime  as  possible.  For  small  rooms  where  form- 
aldehyde gas  can  be  satisfactorily  used,  the  older  liquid  dis- 
infectants may  be  sprayed  into  crevices  and  recesses  as  above 
indicated  ;  for  diphtheria  bacilli,  e.  g.,  may  have  entered  crev 
ices  or  settled  in  a  floor  deeper  than  the  gas  penetrates. 

Formaldehyde  is  a  harmless  and  valu- 
able superficial  disinfectant  for  walls,  ceilings, 
the  outside  of  furniture,  hangings,  clothing  (if 
hung  loosely  with  pockets  turned  out)  deli- 
cate fabrics,  leather  goods  and  furs.  It  does 
not  penetrate,  in  spite  of  statements  to  the 
contrary  ;  hence  it  is  useless  for  pillows,  mat- 
tresses and  deeply  infected  goods,  and  cannot 
supplant  steam  and  chemical  disinfectants. 
It  is  better  than  naphtha  or  benzine.  Unlike 
sulphur,  it  works  best  when  objects  are  dry. 
Of  the  several  ways  of  generating  the  gas  the 
commercial  pastilles  and  lamp  are  most  expen- 
sive. The  apparatus  of  Trillat  or  that  of  the 
Sanitary  Construction  Co.  is  efficient.  For 
the  sickroom,  the  F.  C.  Robinson  lamp,  made 
extra  large,  burning  20  to  30  ounces  of  wood 
alcohol  for  each  thousand  cubic  feet  of  space, 
is  reliable  and  cheap.  The  room  is  to  remain 
tightly  closed  for  at  least  ten  hours.  Precautions  are  needed 
to  prevent  fire. 

Floors  and  mopboards  need  to  be  mopped  liberally  with 
five  per  cent,  carbolic  solution,  even  though  formaldehyde 
or  sulphur  have  been   used.     If  a  floor  have  been  well 


Fig. 


DISINFECTION    OF    ROOMS,  ETC.  445 

laid,  smooth  and  prepared  as  indicated  on  page  149,  a 
single  thorough  application  of  the  strong  carbolic  solution 
will  suffice.  In  a  bad  case,  and  especially  for  our  ordinary 
floors  upon  which  filth  has  fallen,  fresh  milk  of  lime  may  also 
be  freely  applied  with  great  advantage.  Ventilating  flues 
are  to  have  their  surfaces  thoroughly  treated  like  walls  and 
floors. 

Bed-clothing  and  ^vearing  apparel  when  infected 
should,  if  washable,  be  put  into  a  five  per  cent,  carbolic 
acid  solution  and  left  there  for  one  day.  Or  they  can  be 
enclosed  in  a  moistened  sheet  and  carried  to  the  place  where 
they  are  to  be  boiled  in  water  or  steamed  for  more  than 
thirty  minutes.  For  these,  and  especially  for  articles  which 
will  not  bear  washing,  the  use  of  a  steam  disinfecting 
apparatus  having  an  inner  temperature  of  over  220°  F.  (see 
Fig.  8^)  is  to  be  preferred.  This  latter  means  is  also  best 
for  hangings,  draperies,  carpets  and  other  fabrics  or  articles 
liable  to  hold  infection  from  having  been  in  a  sick-room. 

Such  things  are  to  be  removed  before  any  other  cleaning 
is  done  in  the  room.  They  should  be  wrapped  in  damp 
cloths,  then  carefully  carried  away  and  promptly  disinfected. 
When  put  into  the  steam-chamber  they  are  to  be  only 
loosely  rolled.  Bundles  are  to  be  loosely  disposed  and  well 
separated  so  that  the  steam  shall  penetrate  freely.  Feather- 
beds,  for  instance,  need  to  be  in  some  way  kept  from  pack- 
ing solid.  Window-shades  and  rollers  should  have  been 
burned  or  treated  as  above  indicated,  according  to  their 
material,  quality  and  exposure  to  infection.  Steaming  is 
usually  the  best   means  of  disinfection  for  these. 

Disinfection  can  best  be  carried  out  by  conscientious 
people  who  make  a  business  of  that  work.  They  should  be 
under  the  control  of  experts  who  are  familiar  with  all 
scientific  progress,  but  yet  are  not  liable  to  make  the  mis- 
take of  adopting  a  mere  novelty  for  an  essential  advance. 
Such  employees  ought  to  use  rubber  or  other  suitable  mate- 


446  DISINFECTION,    ETC. 

rial  for  their  outer  clothing.  They  require  rubber  boots  for 
use  while  doing  their  work.  The  blouse  shown  in  Fig.  85 
is  long  enough  if  rubber  boots  be  worn.  It  is  important  to 
guard  against  the  possible  event  of  the  disinfecting  people 
themselves  becoming  the  carriers  of  infection  by  careless 
disposal  of  their  outer  clothing. 

These  articles,  as  also  the  hands  and  other  exposed  sur- 
faces, should  be  rinsed  with  a  standard  solution  of  corro- 
sive sublimate  (i  to  1000)  when  the  work  is  completed. 
The  articles  are  then  to  be  rolled  up  and  carried  away. 
The  room  is  left  with  closed  windows  and  doors  for  two  or 
more  hours  in  order  that  the  bacteria  may  settle  and  that 
the  solutions  on  the  floor  and  other  surfaces  may  not  dry  too 
rapidly.  Then  the  windows  are  to  be  opened  at  top  and 
bottom.  The  fresh  air  ought  to  be  allowed  to  circulate 
freely  over  the  infected  objects  and  surfaces. 

Hotel-keepers  or  others  who  lease  rooms  ought  always 
to  be  legally  required  to  have  any  infected  room  promptly 
disinfected  to  the  full  satisfaction  of  experts.  A  severe 
penalty  should  be  enforced  upon  any  one  who  leases  or 
offers  to  lease  a  room  or  rooms  without  truthfully  inform- 
ing the  possible  tenant  in  case  any  infectious  disease  has 
occurred   there  within   two   months. 

Hotels  are  at  times  very  remiss  in  this  respect.  The 
author  is  informed  of  four  fatal  cases  of  diphtheria  where 
the  disease  attacked  successive  occupants  of  a  "  very  desira- 
ble "  room  in  a  prominent  New  York  hotel.  The  infection 
would  not  have  survived  the  first  of  these  cases  if  proper 
measures  of  disinfection  and  isolation  had  at  once  been 
instituted  as  soon  as  the  nature  of  the  disease  was  recog- 
nized. A  hotel-room  is,  at  the  best,  an  unsuitable  place  for 
the  treatment  of  any  infectious  disease.  This  comprehends 
tuberculosis  as  well  as  the  more  acute  communicable  diseases. 

During  the  course  of  an  infectious  disease,  all  dis- 
charges from  the  bowels  and  all  that  is  coughed  up  or  that 


DISINFECTION    OF    DISEASE    DISCHARGES  447 

comes  from  the  mouth  ought  to  be  immediately  subjected 
to  careful  disinfection.  The  same  rule  applies  to  any  wound 
discharges,  dressings  or  cloths,  etc.  The  nurse  and  all 
other  people  that  have  been  in  contact  with  the  disease 
need  to  be  thoroughly  cleansed.  Clothing,  books,  papers, 
food  and  other  articles  that  have  been  near  a  contagious 
case  must  be  prevented  from  carrying  the  infection  to  other 
people.  Burning  effectually  destroys  the  infection  that 
may  be  in  or  upon  such  articles.  Carriages  or  wagons,  used 
to  convey  patients  having  such  diseases,  should  be  swabbed 
well  (inside,  at  least)  with  five  per  cent,  carbolic  acid  solu- 
tion. Cloth  cushions  ought  to  be  steamed.  Atomizers 
(see  Fig.  85)  cause  the  disinfecting  solution  to  penetrate 
very  effectually  into   fissures  and   cavities. 

Wound  dressings,  cloths  and  other  things  that  have 
been  applied  to  diseased  surfaces,  should  be  caught  in 
paper,  rolled  up  and  promptly  burned.  The  (i  to  2000)  cor- 
rosive sublimate  or  other  solution  used  to  wash  diseased 
parts  in  cases  of  puerperal  fever  or  wounds  must  be  re- 
ceived in  special  vessels.  Such  receptacles  for  discharges 
ought  always  to  contain  at  least  a  small  amount  of  a  strong 
disinfectant  solution.  Excellent  for  this  purpose  is  fresh 
milk  of  lime  having  one  part  of  lime  to  ten  parts  of  water. 
A  weaker  solution  suffices,  but  is  slower  of  action.  The 
standard  (i  to  1000)  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  is 
nearly  as  good. 

After  the  discharges  have  entered  the  vessel,  some  of  the 
disinfectant  solution  that  is  selected  can  be  poured  on  satis- 
factorily by  using  an  enamelled-ware  ladle.  This,  being  of 
known  measurement,  allows  a  fairly  accurate  estimate  of  the 
amount  used  of  the  solution.  If,  for  instance,  the  milk  of 
lime  be  made  by  adding  one  pound  (avoirdupois)  of  fresh 
lime  to  one  imperial  gallon  of  water  and  if  the  ladle  have 
the  capacity  of  an  ordinary  goblet  (eight  ounces),  one  ladle- 
ful  suffices  to  disinfect  one  quart  of  the  matters  with  which 


448  DISINFECTION,    ETC. 

it  is  mingled  and  allowed  to  stand.  Of  the  i  to  1000  cor- 
rosive sublimate  solution  or  of  the  other  solutions  recom- 
mended in  this  book,  an  amount  should  be  used  which  at 
least  is  equal  to  the  total  volume  of  the  discharges  requir- 
ing disinfection. 

Instruments  for  serious  operations  must  invariably  be 
sterilized  just  before  they  are  used,  even  if  there  be  no  sus- 
picion that  they  are  possibly  infected.  They  also  need  to  be 
carefully  cleansed  and  disinfected  after  any  operation.  The 
hands  and  person  of  the  surgeon,  and  also  of  all  who  aid  or 
who  come  into  contact  with  the  instruments  or  dressings, 
must  be  scrupulously  clean.  The  use  of  an  instrument  with- 
out carefully  sterilizing  it,  after  it  has  been  upon  the  floor 
or  upon  an  unclean  table,  is  very  wrong.  It  is  in  place  here 
to  remark  that  the  lips  are  not  clean  enough  for  holding 
instruments. 

It  is  a  very  careless  operator  (whether  surgeon  or  dentist) 
who  does  not  take  thorough  measures  to  destroy  all  germs 
that  may  be  on  instruments  and  anything  else  that  is  used 
near  wounds.  Mechanical  removal  by  the  usual  cleaning 
takes  away  most  germs  that  may  be  on  polished  surfaces. 
Knives,  and  articles  that  are  not  injured  by  a  temperature 
under  300°  F.,  should  be  kept  in  metal  cases.  Superheated 
steam,  as  produced  by  the  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  82,  is 
excellent  for  disinfecting  these.  With  care,  rusting  need 
not  occur.  Baking  in  an  oven  heated  just  below  the  point 
that  slightly  browns  cotton-wool  is  a  very  effective  means 
of  sterilizing  instruments,  needles,  etc.  Yet  moist  heat,  as 
has  been  said,  is  more  quickly  effective. 

Whenever  a  knife  or  other  object  has  been  in  contact 
with  maligna7it  carbuncle  or  any  virulent  and  resistant  infec- 
tion, it  should  be  disinfected  by  being  exposed  for  forty 
minutes  to  the  continuous  action  of  superheated  steam  (see 
Fig.  82)  or  of  dry  heat  (not  much  below  300°  F.),  if  this 
heating  be   practicable.     If  heat  cannot  be  used,  careful 


PRECAUTIONS    BEFORE    OPERATIONS  449 

cleaning    and    prolonged    immersion    in    a   strong    carbolic 
solution  is  imperative. 

Ordinary  wound-infection  bacteria  (as  also  the  infective 
element  of  syphilis)  are  very  sensitive  to  the  sterilizing 
action  of  heat  and  disinfectant  solutions.  In  most  cases, 
the  immersion  of  a  clean  knife  or  hypodermic  needle  for  a 
minute  in  boiling  water  suffices  to  destroy  infection.  It  is 
always  well  to  have  at  hand  a  five  per  cent,  carbolic  acid 
solution  to  put  instruments  into.  This  solution  proves  at 
times  too  strong  for  the  skin.  Accordingly,  the  instrument 
(after  having  lain  in  this  strong  solution)  may  be  dipped 
into  boiling  water,  or  into  that  which  has  just  been  boiled, 
in  order  to  remove  any  remnant  of  the  strong,  irritating 
solution.     This  is  not  necessary  in  ordinary  cases. 

Less  efficacious,  but  usually  sufficiently  strong,  is  a  two 
per  cent,  carbolic  solution  or  a  three  per  cent,  (saturated) 
solution  of  boric  acid,  to  be  employed  with  perfectly  clean 
instruments  used  for  cutting  delicate  surfaces.  Manicure 
instruments  need  to  be  disinfected  ;  for  we  sometimes  see 
very  bad  infection  arise  from  careless  use  of  such  things. 
Before  cutting  "corns,"  the  feet  and  knives  ought  to  be 
cleansed.  The  neglect  of  such  precautions  is  occasionally 
followed  by  considerable  inflammations. 

For  all  operations,  whether  upon  human  beings  or 
animals,  the  skin  (to  be  cut)  must  be  carefully  cleansed  after 
soaping  and  shaving  it.  It  is  then  to  be  ringed  with  alcohol 
and  water  and,  after  this,  with  a  i  to  2000  solution  of  cor- 
rosive sublimate.  The  hands  of  the  operator  must  also  be 
bathed  in  a  similar  solution.  All  water  used  for  rinsing 
should  have  been  boiled.  If  the  hands  and  all  else  that 
comes  near  the  wound  have  been  thoroughly  cleaned,  the 
dressings  disinfected  (by  heat)  beforehand,  and  if  these 
protective  dressings  be  thick  enough  to  keep  out  disease 
germs,  there  need  be  feared  no  erysipelas,  tetanus  or  other 
complication  coming  from  uncleanliness. 
29 


450  DISINFECTION^    ETC. 

Spittoons  and  other  receptacles  for  the  expectorations 
from  consumptives  and  other  lung  cases  as  well  as  from 
diphtheria  and  other  diseases  of  the  mouth  and  throat 
ought  in  every  case  to  contain  enough  of  the  standard  disin- 
fectant solutions  to  moisten  any  matters  that  may  enter.  It 
is  well  that  they  be  suitably  covered.  To  disinfect  any 
enamelled  or  porcelain  articles  used  for  such  a  purpose, 
steaming  for  half  an  hour  is  sufficient.  The  covers  require 
the  same  disinfection,  as  a  rule. 

For  consumptives  in  general  and  for  railways  and  some 
other  purposes,  inexpensive,  varnished  pasteboard  recepta- 
cles and  spittoons  are  to  be  recommended.  These  remain 
water-tight  for  a  while.  They  ought  to  be  burned  after  using. 
Such  things  must  not  be  thrown  away  until  they  have  been 
sterilized  by  burning  or  other  efficient  process.  Strong  milk 
of  lime  quickly  disinfects  them.  A  little  "  excelsior,"  or 
other  means  of  preventing  splashing  of  the  contained  disin- 
fectant solution  and  disease  matters,  may  be  in  the  bottom 
of  spittoons. 

For  the  disinfection  of  water-closets  (including  their 
traps),  considerably  more  than  a  gallon  of  solution  should 
be  poured  in  and  allowed  to  remain  for  some  time  in  the 
bowl  and  the  trap  without  any  flushing  from  the  tank.  The 
seat  and  sides  of  the  bowl  should  be  well  mopped  with  the 
same  solution.  The  five  per  cent,  carbolic  acid  solution  is 
always  valuable,  especially  because  it  does  not  attack  metal- 
lic surfaces.  Half  a  pound  (avoirdupois)  of  this  acid  is 
needed  for  each  five  quarts  of  water  used.  Cheaper  and 
more  effective  as  a  rule  is  the  (i  to  looo)  solution  of  cor- 
rosive sublimate.  Two  drachms  (or  a  little  more)  of  this 
very  poisonous  salt  and  an  ounce  of  common  salt  are  to  be 
dissolved  in  two  gallons  of  warm  water.  The  above  solu- 
tions suffice  for  the  disinfection  of  sinks. 

Of  the  various  other  chemicals,  fresh  lime  is  to  be  recom- 
mended as  above  explained.     Sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vit- 


WATER-CLOSETS    AND    VAULTS  45I 

riol^,  half  a  pound  being  dissolved  in  two  gallons  of  water, 
is  recommended  by  some  observers.  The  latest  experi- 
ments (1893)  throw  doubt  over  the  claims  made  for  this 
salt  if  it  be  used  any  weaker  than  above  indicated. 

The  strong  acids  are  very  powerful,  but  act  on  iron  and 
copper.  Better  are  very  strong,  hot  solutions  of  potash  (or 
pearlash)  or  caustic  soda,  especially  for  sinks.  They  are 
disinfectants  and  also  serve  to  remove  grease.  After  the 
solutions  have  stood  for  a  long  time  {more  than  an  hour 
if  possible)  in  the  bowls,  sinks  and  traps,  these  should  be 
freely  flushed  out  with  water. 

Privy  vaults  and  cesspools,  if  their  contents  be  un- 
sterilized,  must  not  be  emptied  at  time  of  epidemics.  The 
walls  of  out-houses  at  such  times  ought  to  be  well  coated 
with  plain  whitewash  made  of  fresh  lime.  Privy  seats 
should  then  be  well  swabbed  with  any  of  the  standard  solu- 
tions spoken  of  above.  The  i  to  looo  corrosive  sublimate 
solution  is  best  for  general  use  in  such  places.  (For  disin- 
fection of  privy  vaults,  see  the  following  paragraph  ;  also  see 
page  362.) 

The  safest  as  well  as  most  economical  way  is  to  disinfect  all 
disease  discharges  before  they  enter  a  vault.  If,  in  excep- 
tional cases,  it  is  necessary  to  disinfect  an  entire  vault  or 
cesspool,  fresh  quicklime  mixed  with  a  little  water  deserves 
to  be  regarded  as  the  best  means  in  most  cases.  One  pound 
of  the  lime  is  to  be  introduced  for  every  cubic  foot  of  the 
vault  contents.  It  is  to  be  thoroughly  mixed  in  and  allowed 
to  stand  for  hours  at  least.  Chloride  of  lime  is  still  stronger 
than  this.  Yet  it  is  more  costly  as  well  as  liable  to  change 
and  thus  become  impaired.  If  copper  sulphate  be  used,  it 
should  at  least  be  in  the  strength  above  given  for  lime. 

Quarantine 
Quarantine  embraces  measures  directed  toward  the  pre- 
vention of  the  entrance  of  infection  from  without.     The 


452  DISINFECTION,    ETC. 

origin  of  the  significance  of  this  word  lay  in  the  barbarous 
mediaeval  notion  that  people  and  vessels  coming  from  a 
locality  having  infectious  diseases  ought  invariably  to  be 
detained  for  forty  days  before  touching  land  or  being 
allowed  to  enter  a  place. 

The  custom  of  herding  many  people  together  upon  a 
disease-laden  ship  or  in  filthy  enclosures  near  a  frontier,  so 
that  the  infected  are  liable  to  remain  a  constant  source  of 
further  disease,  is  in  every  way  harmful.  Much  less  injury 
either  to  commerce  or  to  health  is  caused  when  all  the 
travellers  are  at  once  removed,  the  diseased  and  the  sus- 
pected separated  from  the  healthy,  and  each  of  these  classes 
carefully  kept  by  itself.  Cleanly,  ample  and  agreeable 
accommodations  are  necessary  for  those  who  are  thus 
isolated  and  detained. 

The  ship,  cargo  and  all  personal  effects  that  possibly  can 
have  been  in  any  way  exposed  to  infection  are  then  to  be 
detained  as  long  as  is  necessary  in  order  to  insure  that  they 
have  been  thoroughly  cleansed  and  disinfected.  On  pages 
430  to  451,  the  practical  details  of  disinfection  are  ex- 
plained. A  quarantine  outfit  calls  for  steam-disinfecting 
apparatus  similar  to  that  illustrated  in  Fig.  83. 

Those  who  are  especially  interested  in  practical  maritime 
quarantine  are  advised  to  read  the  booklet  by  Dr.  Joseph 
Holt  describing  the  excellent  and  tested  Louisiana  quaran- 
tine and  disinfection  methods  employed  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi  river  and  which  were  introduced  according 
to  modern  scientific  principles. 

For  a  large  ship,  not  more  than  8,000  gallons  of  (i  to 
1000)  corrosive  sublimate  solution  and  less  than  1,000 
pounds  of  roll  sulphur  for  fumigating  the  hold  are  needed. 
Steam  from  a  special  steel  boiler  is  also  used ;  if  properly 
employed,  it  is  much  more  valuable  than  sulphur  fumiga- 
tions. If  the  bilge  water  is  pumped  out  in  port,  it  should 
have  had  corrosive  sublimate  dissolved  in  it  one  day  before- 


QUARANTINE  453 

hand  so  as  to  make  a  i  to  looo  solution  of  the  mercury 
salt  in  that  water.  Although  this  chemical  acts  upon  iron 
or  other  metallic  surfaces,  any  damage  to  the  vessel  should 
seem  a  minor  consideration  as  compared  with  the  necessity 
of  destroying  the  infection. 

The  crew  and  passengers  (if  to  be  detained  for  a  few 
days  or  possibly  for  more  than  a  week,  as  in  some  cases 
is  necessary  and  proper)  may,  after  being  cleansed  and 
examined,  be  returned  to  the  disinfected  ship  or  to  a 
thoroughly  cleanly  and  commodious  camp.  No  suspected 
cases  are  to  be  allowed  to  mingle  with  those  who  are  well. 
The  attendants  upon  one  class  of  the  detained  are  also  to 
be  restricted  from  contact  with  any  others. 

With  zealous  attention  to  cleanliness  and  the  supplying 
of  fresh,  clean  food  and  water,  those  who  entered  the 
quarantine  in  health  can  be  allowed  to  go  their  way  after 
the  few  days  required  for  the  period  of  incubation  (of  the 
suspected  disease)  to  have  passed.  If,  for  instance,  a  ship 
brings  cholera  cases  to  a  port,  yet  is  promptly  disinfected 
and  the  diseased  and  suspected  cases  are  properly  isolated, 
the  passengers  who  are  well  can  safely  be  discharged  in 
four  or  five  days.  With  yellow  fever,  a  three  days'  longer 
detention  may  at  times  be  called  for. 

In  England,  it  is  deemed  better  to  allow  voyagers  con- 
siderable freedom.  That  country,  pursuing  a  policy  of 
detaining  only  the  diseased  and  suspected,  after  carefully 
taking  the  prospective  addresses  of  well  people  entering  her 
numerous  ports  (which  communicated  frequently  and  inti- 
mately with  cholera  ports),  was  quite  free  from  the  disease 
in  1892.  Yet,  besides  a  number  of  suspected  ones,  eleven 
or  more  genuine  cases  of  cholera  occurred  in  September 
of  that  year  in  ''  widely  separated  parts  of  "  New  York  City, 
these  cases  having  entered  from  without  through  the  quaran- 
tine despite  the  severe  attempts  there  made  to  exclude  the 
disease  by  the  familiar  methods. 


454  DISINFECTION,    ETC. 

In  favor  of  an  intelligent  quarantine  may  be  instanced 
the  immunity  of  New  Orleans  from  yellow  fever  during  the 
few  years  that  the  present  thorough  system  has  been  em- 
ployed to  guard  the  lower  Mississippi  valley.  The  cer- 
tainty that  all  will  be  subjected  to  a  faithful  and  searching 
examination  makes  vessel  owners  very  careful  to  allow  no 
persons  from  infected  districts  to  embark. 

Despite  all  this,  an  unprejudiced  person  who  has  under- 
gone and  observed  quarantine  inspection  on  all  of  our  fron- 
tiers and  coasts,  as  well  as  on  various  frontiers  of  Europe, 
at  times  of  different  epidemics,  is  likely  to  be  convinced  of 
the  fact  that  no  quarantine,  however  scientific  or  barbarous, 
is  constantly  able  to  exclude  all  cases  of  disease.  Some 
infected  people  manage  to  evade  even  "shot-gun  quaran- 
tines "  and  formidable  cordons  of  soldiers. 

For  these  reasons,  it  must  be  insisted  that  it  is  hygieni- 
cally  of  the  utmost  importance  not  to  place  absolute  reli- 
ance upon  the  exclusion  of  disease  by  merely  quarantining 
it.  The  place  that  dreads  disease  and  desires  to  remain  free 
from  infection  must  attend  to  general  and  special  cleanliness. 
Dirt  and  infection  must  be  kept  away  from  streets,  houses, 
railway  stations  and  other  places  of  assemblage  and  traffic. 
So,  likewise,  all  food  supplies  and  especially  milk  and  water 
must  be  zealously  guarded  to  prevent  danger  of  epidemics. 

People  who  are  unclean  are  to  be  regarded  as  dangerous. 
Filth  favors  pestilence  that  has  evaded  a  quarantine  :  a 
single  case  entering  an  unclean  place  can  originate  a  serious 
epidemic.  But  when  the  best  local  hygienic  conditions  are 
maintained,  even  though  numerous  cases  elude  a  vigilant 
quarantine  and  enter  a  perfectly  cleanly  community  (sup- 
plied with  pure  water  and  clean  food),  the  disease  will 
extend  no  further  if  proper  attention  be  paid  to  isolation 
and  disinfection.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  of  great  value  to 
employ  every  enlightened  and  humane  means  to  exclude  the 
disease  that  threatens  to  enter. 


QUARANTINE  45^ 

Quarantines,  even  as  ordinarily  conducted,  are  of  value 
in  keeping  out  infectious  diseases  from  American  ports. 
Since  broad  ocean  surfaces  separate  us  from  the  regions 
whence  our  filthiest  immigrants  come,  we  have  a  valuable 
safeguard  in  that  fact.  The  ocean  passage  usually  takes 
time  enough  to  have  covered  the  period  of  incubation, 
between  the  reception  of  the  infection  by  an  individual  and 
the  time  when  the  disease  first  manifests  itself. 

The  period  of  incubation  (see  page  402)  is  less  than  a 
week  with  cholera  and  also  with  the  plague.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  scarlet  fever.  In  yellow  fever  and  diph- 
theria, the  period  rarely  exceeds  a  week.  Measles,  small- 
pox and  typhus  require  twice  as  long  a  time  to  have  passed 
before  we  can  safely  say  that  the  person  recently  exposed 
to  these  has  not  received  the  infection.  With  typhus,  the 
period  may  be  a  week  longer. 

The  most  rational  general  safeguard  in  the  form  of  exclu- 
sion would  be  to  require  that  every  one  who  was  about  to 
emigrate  hither  should  of  necessity  have  already  a  certifi- 
cate of  health  (and  of  presumable  general  fitness)  secured 
from  the  United  States  consul  of  the  region  from  which 
the  emigrant  came.  Without  this,  no  one  should  be  allowed 
to  land  here.  If,  after  the  adoption  of  these  precautions, 
no  cases  of  infectious  disease  had  arisen  during  the  ocean 
passage,  such  people  could  be  considered  free  from  infec- 
tion. International  cooperation  is  of  value  in  these  matters. 
Desultory  advices  from  foreign  agents  of  municipalities  or 
organizations  here  have  proved  to  be  an  unsafe  reliance. 

When  quarantine  is  attempted,  it  must  be  intelligent  and 
consistent.  Good  executive  ability  and  conscientiousness 
are  needed  in  any  case.  It  can  be  effectively  carried  out 
by  a  State,  as  is  shown  by  the  thoroughness  with  which 
the  Louisiana  quarantine  method  keeps  out  yellow  fever 
and  other  diseases.  Yet  it  seems  preferable,  for  the  sake 
of   thoroughness    and   general    security,    that  the  national 


456  DISINFECTION,    ETC, 

government  should  control  this  important  bulwark  against 
disease. 

Cases  of  infectious  disease  that  have  entered  a  commu- 
nity in  spite  of  a  quarantine,  must  be  isolated  in  special 
hospitals  or  dwellings.  Notification  to  the  authorities, 
whenever  such  cases  arise  or  are  even  suspected,  ought 
to  be  compulsory.  By  an  equitable  arrangement,  those  in 
close  contact  with  the  patients  should  be  strictly  controlled 
and  kept  from  carrying  the  infection  to  others.  The  proper 
disinfection  of  the  invaded  apartments,  and  the  other  pre- 
cautions already  indicated  must  be  observed  in  every  case. 


VITAL   STATISTICS.     LONGEVITY 

To  the  actuary  or  statistician,  the  *'  probable  duration  of 
life"  is  a  precise  number  of  years  in  a  given  case  readily 
determinable  from  "  life  tables  "  arranged  by  Farr  and  other 
experts  in  vital  statistics.  This  mathematical  aspect  of  the 
subject  is  interesting  and  important  to  life  insurance  com- 
panies, as  it  provides  an  average  to  guide  them  fairly  well  in 
their  business.  For  an  individual  the  question  is  very  un- 
certain and  complex.  He  has  the  same  statistical  data,  but 
for  him  singly  their  applicability  to  the  average  person  is 
only  a  very  vague  guide,  and  many  subjective  and  objective 
incidents  occur  to  modify  the  chance  of  survival  to  the  tra- 
ditional three  score  years  and  ten.  From  Farr's  tables  and 
Newsholme  we  learn,  for  instance,  that  there  is  one  chance 
in  seven  that  a  person  will  die  of  phthisis,  and  seven  times 
as  much  likelihood  that  some  other  disease  will  cause  his  end 
as  that  phthisis  will.  But  in  a  particular  case  the  probability 
may  be  much  greater  or  much  less  than  the  average  accord- 
ing as  heredity,  the  usual  surroundings,  unusual  circum- 
stances, intelligent  care  and  other  factors  influence  the 
result. 

Statistical  records  of  the  healthfulness  and  mortality  of  a 
locality  and  the  prevalent  diseases,  especially  if  given  for  a 
number  of  years,  are  very  instructive  when  reliable  and  accu- 
rately interpreted,  with  due  allowances  for  immigrations,  age- 
and  sex-distribution  and  special  conditions  The  death  rate 
is  usually  estimated  at  so  many  deaths  yearly  per  thousand 
of  the  entire  population.  This  rate  is  reported  by  some  of 
our  cities  as  being  less  than  lo.  Under  17  is  very  good. 
Over  25  is  high.     Country  districts  have  lower  death  rates 


458  VITAL    STATISTICS 

than  cities,  and  the  denser  the  city  population  the  greater 
the  rate  of  mortality. 

The  very  low  death  rate  reported  by  certain  of  our  west- 
ern cities  does  not  show  that  these  are  proportionately  more 
healthful  than  eastern  places  having  a  higher  mortality.  The 
fact  that  the  population  of  these  budding  cities  is  largely  com- 
posed of  vigorous  young  immigrants  (under  thirty  years  of 
age),  and  that  in  most  of  these  young  cities  the  birth  rate  is 
high,  accounts  in  large  part  for  the  favorable  figures.  Some- 
what the  same  may  be  said  of  residential  suburbs  and  water- 
ing places,  where  also  there  are  many  young  female  servants. 

A  high  death  rate  maybe  due  to:  (i)  A  high  birth  rate,  if 
considered  only  for  a  brief  period,*  infant  mortality  being 
enormous.  But  if  the  birth  rate  remain  high  for  a  consid- 
erable number  of  years  the  increased  proportion  of  young 
adults  would  cause  the  death  rate  to  be  lowered.  (2)  A  low 
birth  rate  continuing  for  many  years,  although  for  a  few  years 
it  would  lower  the  general  death  rate.  (3)  City  residence 
in  unhealthful  districts,  crowding  into  unsanitary  tenements, 
with  consequent  degeneracy  and  disease.  (4)  Alcoholic  and 
other  excess,  causing  poverty,  misery,  starvation,  neglect. 
Bad  food,  patent  medicines,  soothing  syrups  to  infants. 
(5)  Crime,  perilous  occupations,  and  those  directly  and  in- 
directly harmful.  Epidemics.  (6)  Extremes  of  hot  or  of 
cold  weather,  especially  if  of  long  continuance. 

Premature  death,  like  suffering,  disease  and  vague  ill- 
health  come,  to  a  great  extent,  from  causes  which  can  be 
prevented,  or  at  least  mitigated  in  severity  of  incidence 
even  if  not  wholly  averted.  With  infectious  diseases  such 
is  demonstrably  the  case.  Thus,  in  Munich  the  pure  water 
supply  has  made  typhoid  fever  very  rare,  and  compulsory 
vaccination  has  practically  extinguished  small-pox,  a  disease 
of  which  thousands  of  cases  have  occurred  in  a  few  localities 

*  Newsholme,   Vital  Statistics,  pages  7Q,  84,  86. 


DEGENERACY  459 

in  England  recently  because  of  a  strong  sentiment  prevent- 
ing vaccination.  So,  too,  small-pox  is  exceedingly  prevalent 
in  Mexico,*  although  it  might  be  quite  possible  to  stamp 
out  the  disease. 

We  know_that'the  causes  of  premature  chronic  diseases  are 
to  a  certain  extent  preventable,  and  the  tissue  degenerations 
that  they  represent  can  be  restricted  like  other  manifestations 
of  early  old  age.  Yet  the  ideal  civilized  life,  perfect  and 
free  from  vice,  intemperance  and  other  manifestations  of 
ignorance  and  indifference,  seems  incapable  of  realization. 
Ordinarily  people  tend,  in  part  at  least,  to  live  so  out  of 
harmony  with  natural  laws  that  there  is  a  marked  tendency 
to  the  early  development  of  degenerative  diseases  of  the  vital 
organs.  It  is  the  brain  and  nervous  system  in  general  that 
most  conspicuously  show  the  effects  of  degenerative  disor- 
ders, among  civilized  people  as  compared  with  savages. 
Healthy  people  who  live  simply  and  naturally  with  no  great 
strain,  worry  or  stagnation,  are  least  likely  to  develop  mental, 
nervous  or  other  degenerative  diseases. 

Charcot's  pupils  have  done  much  to  show  the  intimate 
relationship  between  various  phases  of  chronic  disease  and 
the  protean  and  indirect  way  in  which  morbid  heredity  or 
degeneracy  may  be  manifested.  In  one  and  the  same  class 
they  accordingly  include  rheumatism,  gout,  asthma,  neural- 
gias, neurasthenia,  hysteria,  epilepsy,  criminality,  paralyses 
and  mental  derangements.  Defining  degeneracy  as  a  loss 
of  the  hereditary  qualities  that  determine  and  fix  the  adap- 
tations of  the  individual  and  the  race,  they  find  it  manifested 
by  physical,  intellectual  and  moral  deficiences. 

Such  penalties  being  attached  to  an  aberrant  civilization 
and  resulting  from  the  complex  and  intense  nature  of  the 
artificial  struggle  for  existence  and  its  developments,  the 
cure  and  prevention  of  such  things  obviously  lies  in  simple, 

*  U.  S.  Public  Health  Reports;  March  4,  i8g8,  page  211. 


460  VITAL    STATISTICS,  ETC. 

healthful  ways  of  life  and  an  avoidance  of  that  which  is  un- 
hygienic. Nature  can  then  not  only  stop  the  process,  but  also 
seems  capable  in  some  instances  of  repairing  somewhat  the 
dissolution  of  heredity  and  favoring  "  regeneration."  This 
calls  for  rest  (including  sleep),  abundant  food  of  wholesome 
quality,  hygienically  favorable  surrounding  conditions  and 
entire  absence  of  the  factors  that  cause  the  degeneration.' 
An  illustration  of  the  efficacy  of  intelligent  efforts  in  this 
direction  is  found  in  the  history  of  the  Jews.  That  greatest 
of  sanitarians,  Moses,  by  judicious  restrictions  amid  health- 
ful surroundings,  raised  that  people,  in  the  brief  space  of 
forty  years,  from  a  condition  of  physical  and  moral  debase- 
ment, disease  and  slavery  to  a  degree  of  strength  and  vitality 
such  as,  maintained  by  temperance,  has  enabled  them  to  sur- 
vive many  a  civilization  and  to  prosper  despite  all  oppression. 
The  ruling  family  of  Russia  may  be  mentioned  as  a  promi- 
nent instance  of  successful  resistance  against  beginning  de- 
generacy. 

Longevity  results  from  conditions  precisely  the  opposite  of 
those  causes  of  degeneracy,  early  disease  and  decrepitude. 
If  we  study  many  cases  of  sound  and  "ripe"  old  age,  we  find 
a  good  heredity  figuring  as  the  main  factor,  although  some 
cases  prove  exceptions  to  this  rule.  But  the  advantage  of 
descent  from  strong,  sound  ancestors  is  negatived  and  the 
strongest  constitution  undermined  by  excesses,  the  stress  of 
unremitting  struggle  for  wealth,  influence  and  position,  by 
yielding  to  the  temptations  and  enervating  influences  that 
beset  the  luxurious  rich.  Like  vice,  destitution,  misery,  un- 
ceasing anxiety  and  worry,  these  tend  to  bring  degeneration 
and  insanity.  Men  confront  these  adverse  influences  in  gen- 
eral, more  than  women  do,  and  hence  are  more  likely  to 
**  grow  old  before  their  time."  Diversified  hard  work,  either 
of  brain  or  of  muscles,  does  not  appear  to  cause  premature 
decay.  Work  or  some  occupation  is  quite  indispensable  to 
healthy  life,  while  luxurious  idleness  is  regarded  as  predis- 


LONGEVITY  46 1 

posing  to  bodily  ailments,  hysteria,  and  even  insanity.  The 
latter  effect,  especially  in  the  form  ojf  religious  delusions  and 
fanatical  outbreaks,  comes  also  from  mental  stagnation  and 
lack  of  healthy  diversion. 

In  all  walks  of  life,  from  Gladstone  and  Leo  XIII.  to  toil- 
ers in  the  humblest  social  grades,  examples  abound  to  prove 
that  a  very  advanced  age  may  be  reached  without  serious 
senility.  Many  a  patient  is  virtually  older  at  thirty-five  than 
another  at  sixty-five.  It  is  not  the  number  of  years  alone 
that  constitutes  old  age,  but  rather  the  condition  of  the 
arteries,  the  heart  and  other  vital  organs.  These  will  prob- 
ably long  remain  sound  if  so  in  the  beginning  and  if  the  life 
have  been  lived  with  proper  regard  for  the  laws  of  health. 


INDEX 


Absorbability  of  food,  217-219. 
Accidents,  115,  116. 
Acclimatization,  10. 
Acid  drinks  in  fever,  272. 
Acids  bad  for  teeth,  63. 
Actinomyces,  225. 
Actinomycosis,  225,  416. 
Adipocere,  373. 
Adulteration  of  milk,  229. 

of  wines  and  liquors,  245, 
248. 
Aerifying  water,  287. 
Aerobic  bacteria,  383. 
Ague,  404. 

Air  and  bacteria,  142,  383. 
Air-filter,   177. 
Air,  impurities  in,  15. 
Air  inflow  measurement,  207. 
Alcohol,  effects  of,  246,  262. 
Alcohohc    liquors,    218,     244-249, 

262. 
Aleuronat  in  diabetes,  279. 
Alkali  for  cleansing  the  skin,  57. 
"  Alkali  water,"  to  purify,  306. 
Altitude,  cooking  at  high,  257. 

and  climate,  9,  29. 

for   arresting   consumption, 
36. 

not    causing    lung     hemor- 
rhage, 37. 

of  western  routes,  39. 
Albuminoid    ammonia    in    water, 

294. 
Albuminous  food,  214,  219. 

in  chronic  diseases,  272. 

in  diabetic  diet,  279. 
Alum,  clarifying  water,  308. 

in  bread,  test  for,  237. 
American  climates,  21,  34-41. 


Ammonia  in  water,  292. 
Amoebae,  400. 
Anaerobic  bacteria,  383. 
Anemometers,  33,  200. 
Antitoxin,  395,  396. 
Arsenic  against  malaria,  406. 

in  cloth,  etc.,  51,  54. 

in  wall-paper,  etc.,  153,  15^ 

poisoning,  114. 

in  kindergarten  paper,  etc.. 
109. 
Artesian  wells.  304. 
Artificial  feeding  of  babes,  264. 

lights,  12S-139. 

comparison  of,  135,  136. 

ventilation,  198-212. 
Asphalt  for  floors,  150. 

pavement,  157. 
Aspiration     (exhaust    ventilation), 

202. 
Assembly  rooms,  etc., — quantity  of 

fresh  air  needed,  196. 
Athleticism,  72,  75. 
Atomizer  (disinfecting),  443. 
Attenuation  of  bacteria,  392. 

of  virus,  394-396. 
Astigmatism,  69. 
Autoclave,  435. 


B 


Bacilli,  380. 

Back  ventilation  (plumbing),  338- 

344-^ 
Bacteria  and  disease,  378-396,  400, 

and  filters,  308. 

and  floors,  147-149,  444. 

and  health,  4. 

and  meat,  226. 

and  milk,  229,  230. 


472 


INDEX 


Bacteria  and  sewage,  315. 

classification,  378,  380. 

held  back  by  good  filter, 
286,  287. 

in  air,  5. 

in  corpses,  373,  376. 

in  water,  288. 

nature  and  study  of,  378- 
393. 

(of  soil),  3,4. 

universal  prevalence  of,  388. 
Bacteriological  test  of  water,  288, 

293- 
Baking  bread.  235. 

meat,  253. 
Baking-powder,  236,  237. 
Baltimore  heater,  169. 
Bananas,  240. 
Barley- water,   265. 
Barometers,  28,  29,  30. 
Bath-rooms,  61. 
Baths  and  bathing,  41,  56-61,  65. 

and  their  effects,  59. 
Bath-tubs,  61,  357. 
Beard,  62. 

Bed-clothing,  44,  54. 
Beef  extracts,  222. 
Beer,  245,  247,  413. 
Beet-roots,  238. 
Berlin  filter  beds,  309. 

sewage  fields,  331. 
Beverages,     proper     temperature, 

259- 
Bicycling,  86,  87. 
Bilge  water,  disinfection  of,   452. 
"  Bitters,"  262. 
"  Black  vomit,"  414. 
Blockheads,  108. 
Blood  serum  and  infection,  393. 

(bacteria  culture),  381,  382. 
Blowers  for  ventilating,    203-206, 

211. 
Body-heat,  its  regulation,  42,  43. 
Boiled  water,  283. 
Boiling  improves  hard  water,  286. 
Boiling  meat,  255. 
Boric  acid  (disinfectant),  387. 
Bowl  vents  (plumbing),  353. 
Boxing,  85. 
Bread,  235. 

used  for  cleaning  walls,  442. 


Broiling,  254. 
Building,  141,  142. 

material,  142,   144-148. 

material  must  be  clean,  146- 
148. 
Bulk  of  food  required,  261. 
Burial,  changes  after,  373. 
Burying-grounds,  374. 
Bushes  and  soil  moisture,  140. 
Butter,  232. 


Caissons  and  diving-bells,  29. 
California  climate,  34,  37. 

wines,  244,  245. 
Camping  out,  40. 
Canada,  climate,  22-26,  30,  41. 
Cancer,  395. 
Candles,  128. 
Canned  vegetables,  239,  240. 

copper  in,  239. 

lead  in,  240. 
Canoeing,  83. 

Capillary  attraction  (in  traps),  336. 
Carbohydrates,  215,  265. 

in  diabetes,  278. 
Carbolic  acid,   386,  413,  419,  426, 

440. 
Carbonic  acid  gas,  13-15. 

amount    exhaled,  194. 

in  bread-making,  235,  236. 

from  muscles,  71. 

monoxide  gas,  132,  164,  165. 
Carcasses,  disposal  of,  371. 
Carcinoma  [see  Cancer],  395. 
Carlsbad,  2S0. 
Carpets,  150. 
Catch-basins  (sewer),  322. 
Cereal  foods,  234. 
Cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  429. 
Champagne,  244,  276. 
Charcoal  stoves,  171. 
Cheese,  233. 
Chemical   analysis   of  water,  289- 

295. 
disinfectants,   386,  439-446. 
composition  of  foods,  220. 
standard  of  diet,  217,   267, 

268. 


INDEX 


473 


Chicken-pox,  420. 
Child  labor,  118. 
Children,  age  for  school,  loS. 
care  of  eyes.  66. 
food  for.  266. 
Chimneys  allowing  back-currents, 
209. 
for  ventilation,  199-201. 
Chinook  wind,  8. 
Chlorine  in  water,  295. 
testing  for,  291. 
Chocolate,  244. 
Cholera,  409. 

from  unclean  food,  236. 
infantum,  406. 
infection  and  flies,  402. 
Cholerine.  392,  411. 
Churches,  ventilation  of,  210. 
Cider,  245. 
Cisterns,  300,  303. 
Cleaning  the  skin,  56. 
Cleanliness  of  floors,  149,  150, 

taught   to  children,    89,  90, 
121. 
Climate  (general),  i. 
choice  of,  33. 
Climatic  factors,  8. 
Clothing  and  warmth,  42,  43. 
disinfection  of,  445. 
material,  etc.,  43-47. 
Cloudiness,  24. 
Coal,  163. 
Coca  wine,  248. 

Cocci  (round  bacteria),  380,  3S7. 
"Cocktails,"  262. 
Cocoa.   244. 
Cod-liver  oil,  273. 
Coffee,  21S,  242,  244,  259. 
Cold  and  bacteria,  384. 
bathing,  281. 
feet,  48. 
food,  259. 
waves,  31. 
"  Colds,"  46.  403- 
Colony  (of  bacteria),  382. 
Color-blindness,  67,  1 16,  117. 
Color  of  clothing,  43. 
Combustion,  161,  164. 
"  Comma  bacilli,"  380,  411. 
Communicable  diseases,  401. 
in  schools,  88,  90. 


Complexion,   61. 

Complexity  of  plumbing,  345. 

Compressed     air     for    ventilating 

mines,  210. 
Concrete  floors,  150. 
Condensed  foods,  261. 

milk,  265. 
Conservancy     systems      (excreta), 

363-366. 
Constipation,  diet  for,  274. 
Consumption  [see  Tuber culosis\. 
"Consumption,"   climate  for,  35- 

38. 
Contagious  diseases,  401. 
Cooking,  217,  250,  257. 

required  for  cereals,  235. 
required  for  meat,  221,  223. 
required  for  milk,  227. 
Cook-stove,  251. 

Cooperative  loan  associations,  123. 
Copper,  action  of  fats  on,  252. 

in  preserved  vegetables,  239. 
sulphate  (disinfectant),  413. 
testing  water  for,  290. 
Corned  meat,  221. 
Corns,  50,  449. 
Corpses,  after  burial,  373. 
Corpulency,  diet  for,  279. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  388,  426,  439, 

440. 
Corsets,  51. 
Cosmetics,  61. 
Cotton,  holding  back  bacteria,  381, 

388. 
Cotton-seed  oil,  233,  241. 
Cotton  underclothing,  46. 
Country  homes  most  healthful,  141. 
Country  life  for  workman,  122. 
Court-rooms,  fresh  air  needed,  196. 
Cowls  and  caps  for  flues,  202. 
Cow-pox,  394. 
Cows  and  tuberculosis,  228. 
care  of,  231. 
require  fresh  air,  212. 
Creamometer.  229. 
Cremation  of  corpses,  377. 
Crematories,  for  garbage,  369. 
Creosote  (disinfectant).  387. 
Cresol  (disinfectant),  440. 
Croup,  419' 
Croupous  pneumonia,  424. 


474 


INDEX 


Culture  medium  (for  bacteria),  381, 

382. 
Culture  of  bacteria,  381,  382. 
"Cures"  for  reducing  fat,  280. 
Cyanide  of  mercury,  388,  419. 
Cyclone,  31. 
Cysticercus,  224. 


D 


Dampers,  165,  169,  170. 

Dandruff,  62. 

Darkness    and  bacteria,   124,   154, 

383,  432. 
Daylight  and  bacteria,  4,  142,  154, 
384,  426,  432. 

and  health,  4,  24,  125,  142, 
154,  384,  426. 
Death-rate,  467. 

Decomposition  due  to  bacteria,  3, 
227,  315.  389- 

in  corpses,  373. 
Density  of  the  atmosphere,  29. 
Deodorization,  431. 
Desert  (American),  21,  35. 
Desk,  position  of,  126. 
Dew-point,  17. 
Dextrine,  265. 
Diabetes,  diet,  278. 
Diet,  267. 

for  increasing  fat,  281. 

in  disease,  270. 
Digestibility  of  food,  217,  255. 
Digestive  potency  of  bacteria,  390. 
Diluting  cow's  milk,  264. 
Diphtheria,  go,  417. 
Diplococci,  380. 

Direct-indirect  steam-heating,  182. 
Direct  steam-heating,  182. 
Discharges,  disinfection  of,  447, 
Disease  caused  by  tight  clothing, 5 1. 
Disease,  diet  in,  270. 
Disease  germs  in  clothing,  45,  52. 

in  water,  296. 
Diseased  meat,  225. 
Diseases    of   schools,    88,    90,    99, 

lor,  106,  109. 
Disinfectants,  431-444. 
Disinfection,  430-456.. 

of  beds,  54,  445. 


Disinfection  of  pails,  etc.,  363. 
Dismal  Swamp  water,  301. 
Distilled  water,  306. 
Diversions  necessary,  71. 
Double  windows,  93. 
Drainage  of  house,  318. 
Drain-pipes,  333. 
Draperies,  154. 
Draughts  of  air,  198. 
Drinking  water,  260,  282. 

with  meals,  260. 
"Dry-closets,"  99,  180,  201,  359. 
Dust  and  bacteria,  5. 

examination  of,  6. 

of  streets,  159. 

its  dangers,  77. 

poisonous,  112,  113, 
Dysentery,  406. 
Dyspepsia,  diet,   273. 


Ears,  care  of,  64,  65. 

Earth-closets,  364-366. 

Eating,  general  considerations,  260. 

Education,  107. 

Effect  of  alcohol,  246,  262. 

Eggs,  227,  256,  272. 

Electric  light,  136-139. 

Electrolytic    destruction  of   pipes, 

313- 
Embalming  corpses,  374. 
Endospores,  381. 
Erysipelas,  62,  416,  449. 
Exanthematous  diseases,  420. 
Exercise,  effects  of,  71-74. 

for  invalids,  38. 
Exhaust  ventilation,  T99-202. 
Explosions,    flour    dust    and    coal 
dust,  113. 

inflammable  liquids,  115. 

boilers,  115. 

gas,  134. 
Eye-glasses,  68,  69. 
Eyes,  care  of,  65. 
Eyesight  and  occupation,  66. 


Factory  women  and  children,  ilS, 
122. 


INDEX 


475 


Fans  for  ventilating,  203. 
Farcy,  225.  416. 
Far-sightedness,  glasses  for,  69. 
Fat,  diet  for  reducing,  279. 
Fats,  216. 

acting  on  copper,  252. 

in  chronic  disease,  273. 

in  summer  diet,  270. 

not  for  fever  diet,  271. 
Fencing.  85. 
Fever  diet,  270. 
Filling  teeth,  63,  64. 
Filtering  air,  205. 
Filters,  for  water,   283,   287,   308- 

311- 
Filtration  of  sewage,  328. 
Fire-damp,  210. 
Fire-escapes,  151,  152. 
Fire-pot,  170,  175. 
Fireproof  cloth,  52. 
Fireworks,  protecting  from,  69. 
Fish,  219. 

and  leprosy,  429. 
Flatulency,  274,  389, 
Flesh,  to  reduce,  279. 
Flies,  etc.,  carrying  infection,  402, 

405. 
Floors,  95,  147-151. 
Flour,  234. 
Flues  of  chimneys,  165. 

ventilating,  199-204,  212. 
Fluid  food,  260. 
Fogs,  23. 

Foliage  (warding  off  heat),  193. 
Food,  amount  needed,  213,  214. 

dangerous.  222. 

fluid  or  solid  ?  260. 

for  babes,  260,  263. 

in  disease,  270-281. 

preparation,  250. 

temperature  of,  259. 
Foot,  shape  of,  49. 
Football,  75,  85. 
Forests  and  climate,  7. 

and  malaria,  405. 
Forms  of  bacteria,  380. 
Formalin,  Formaldehyde,  444. 
Free  ammonia  in  water,  294. 
Fresh-air  inflow,  velocity  of,  204. 

inlet  (ventilation),  204. 

inlet  (plumbing),  334,  336. 


Fresh  air  to  furnace,  176-178. 

Fruit,  270. 

Fruits  and  berries,  240. 

Frying,  254. 

Fuel,  161-164. 

Fumigation,  414,  442. 

Funerals  and  infectious  diseases, 

372. 
Fur  garments,  45. 
Furnace,  175,  176. 
Furnace-heating,  174-180. 
Furniture,  disinfection  of,  444. 
Fusel  oil,  246,  248. 


Galvanized  iron  pipes  (plumbing), 
348. 

water-pipes,  313. 
Gamy  flavor  of  meat,  226. 
Gang- wells,  304,  305. 
Garbage,  etc.,  368-371. 

furnaces,  369,  370. 
Gas,  illuminating,  131-136. 

dangers  of,  131-134. 

leakage  of,  132,  133. 

ventilation  for,  136. 

sewer,  15,  132,  324. 
Gas-burners,  134,  135. 
Gaseous  poisons,  16,  in. 
Gas-pipes,  133,  313. 
Gas-stoves,  172. 
Gelatine,  as  food,  256. 

for  bacteria,  381,  382. 
Germs,  378. 
Glanders,  225,  416. 
Glare,  to  shield  eyes  from,  125. 
Glasses   for  defects  of  vision,  68, 

69. 
Gluten,  234. 

in  diabetic  diet,  278. 
Gonorrhea,  415. 
Gout,  diet  for,  273,  276. 
Granular  eyelids,  89. 
Grass,  influencing  climate,  7. 
Grate  fires,  166-169,  202. 
Graves,  danger  from,  375. 
Gravies  and  sauces,  254. 
Green  vegetables,  239. 
Ground  for  cemeteries,  374. 


476 


INDEX 


Ground-moisture,  3. 
G'ound.  temperature  of,  6. 
Ground- water,  3,  298,  301,  304. 
Guinea-pig  as  test  for  tuberculosis, 

228. 
Gymnasiums,  78. 

Gymnastics     in     "  consumption," 
429. 
in  school,  100. 


H 


Hamburg  and  cholera,  410. 

and  impure  water,  310. 
Hands,  to  cleanse,  432,  449. 
"Hanging  drop"  (bacteria),  379. 
Hanging  rings  for  exercising,  79. 
Hard  water,  285. 

to  improve,  286. 

test  for,  292. 
Harmlessness  of  most  bacteria,  389, 

390- 
Hats,  43. 

Heart  disease,  38,  72-74. 
Heat  and  bacteria,  4,  178,  384-386, 
402,  412,  418,  433. 
as  disinfectant,  433-439. 
regulator  (thermostat),  192. 
Heating,    comparative    merits  and 

cost  of  different  systems,  191. 
Height  and  size  of   school-rooms, 

94. 
Hemorrhoids  ;  diet   to   be  simple, 

275- 
Heredity  and  physical  endurance, 

74- 

and  infection,  428. 
Hotels  not  best  for  invalids,  34. 

to  use  disinfectants,  446. 
Hot  food,  259. 

Hot-water  heating  (merits  of),  189. 
Hot    weather,   protection    against, 

43,  192,  193. 
House  drainage,  318,  333-358- 
Humidity,  definitions,  etc.,  17. 
Hydatids,  224. 
Hydrants,  311,  312. 
Hydrochloric    acid    (disinfectant), 

386,  413,  441. 
Hydrophobia,  395. 


Hygiene,     advantages     of,     397, 

399- 
Hygrometer,  17. 


Ice,  artificial,  314. 

for  irritable  stomach,  272. 

to  be  pure,  313,  314. 

water,  259. 
Illuminating  gas,  131. 

requires     fresh-air     supply, 

.  ^97- 
Impurities  in  the  air,  194-197. 
Incubation,  90,  91,  402,  455. 
Indian  corn,  238. 
Indirect  steam-heating,  183-185. 
Infant  feeding,  263. 
Infection  from  neighbors,  141. 
Infectious  diseases,  397-429. 

and  schools,  88,  90. 

and  corpses,  372,  373,  376. 
Influenza,  423. 
Immunity    from     infection,     393- 

396. 
Inland  climate,  9. 
Insects  carriers  of  infection,  402, 
Insanity,  461. 

Inspection  of  meat,  222-226. 
Insurance  for  M'orkmen,  122. 
Instruments,  cleanliness  of,  448. 
Intermittent  fever,  404. 
Invasion  diseases,  400. 
Iron  in  water,  291,  298. 
Irrigation  farms  (sewage),  329. 
Isolation  of  bacteria,  381,  382. 


Jumping  rope,  84. 


K 


Kerosene  oil  and  lamps,  I2g. 
Kidney  disease,  38,  60,  277. 
Kindergarten  schools,  108,  109. 
Kitchens,  153. 
Koumiss,  232,  278. 


INDEX 


477 


Lactometer,  229. 

Lake  water,  289,  299. 

Lavatories.  356. 

Lead  and  color-blindness,  67. 

in  beer,  245. 

in  canned  food,  222,  240. 

in  porcelain  glaze,  252. 

in  water,  28 5,  290.  300. 

poisoning,  113,  309,  312. 
Leanness,      diet      for     lessening, 

281. 
Leather  for  shoes,  47. 
Legislation  for  workers,  119. 
Lemonade  and  malaria,  406. 
Leprosy,   429. 
Lettuce    requires    cleansing,    239, 

332. 
Leucomaines,  390. 
Light  and  health,  4,  24,  125,  142, 
154,  384,  426. 

for  eyes  at  work,  67. 

for    school-rooms,    92,    94, 
125. 

measurement,  125,  126. 
Lime,  as  disinfectant,  431,  441. 

in  water,  2S6,  291,  295. 
Liquors  (distilled),  245,  262, 
"  Lithia  waters,"  284. 
Lithium  for  testing,  298,  363. 
Liver  disease  produced  by  alcohol, 

262. 
Local  ventilation  (plumbing),  353. 
Location  of  ventilating  openings, 

206-210. 
Longevity,  461. 
"  Lymph  "  (of  Koch),  428. 
Lysol  (disinfectant),  440. 


M 


Madness  (hydrophobia),  395. 

Maize,  238. 

Malaria,  403. 

Malignant  carbuncle  ;  disinfection, 

448. 
Malt  liquors,  245,  247. 
Manholes  (sewers),  322. 
Marsh  fever,  404. 


Massachusetts     sewage     filtration 

experiments,  328. 
Meal-time,  261. 
Measles,  90,  422. 

of  pork,  224. 
Measurement  of  bacteria,  379. 
Measuring  fresh-air  supply,  207. 
Meat,  219,  250,  253. 

canned,  221. 

cooking  required,  221,  223, 
254. 

extracts,  222. 

in  fat-reducing  diet,  279. 

inspection  of,  223. 

parasites,  222,  254. 

preserving,  221. 
Mechanical  ventilation,   197,  203- 

207. 
Meningitis,  425,  429. 
Mercury  salts  (disinfectant),    387, 

439-. 

poisoning,  114. 
Mexico,  climate  of,   8,  22,  24,  26, 

36,  40. 
Miasm,  400,  401. 
Microbes,  378. 
Micrococci,  380. 
Microorganisms  [see  Bacteria]. 
Microscope,   for    examining    food, 
223,  244. 

for  study  of  bacteria,  378. 
Mikron  (measurement),  379. 
Milk,  227,  229. 

for  babes,  263,  264. 

for  fever  diet.  271. 

for  kidney  disease,  277. 

in  other  disease  diet,  272. 

temperature  of,  260. 
Minerals  in  water,  test  for,  290. 
Mines,  ventilation  of,  210. 
Mixed  diet,  215.  261,  267,  284. 
"  Moderate  drinking,"  248. 
Moist  clothing,  46. 
Moisture    and    bacteria,    10,    384, 
388. 

in  air,  16. 

in  walls,  154,  155. 

needed  with    stoves,  radia- 
tors, etc.,  172,  173. 
Morbilli,  422. 
Morphine,  249. 


473 


INDEX 


Mosquitoes,    etc. ,    carrying  infec- 
tion, 402,  405,  414. 

Mosquito-nets,  414, 

Mountain  climbing,  82. 
fever,  408. 

Mountains  and  climate,  8,  22,  30, 
37- 

Mumps,  420. 

Muscularity  not  health,  70. 

Muscular  stiffness,  72. 

Mushrooms,  240. 

Myopia,  loi. 


N 


Naphtha  as  disinfectant,  433,  444. 
Natural  ventilation,  ig8. 

waters,  few  bacteria  in,  289. 
"  Natural  wool  "  underwear,  45. 
Nearsightedness,  loi. 

glasses  for,  68. 
Negroes,    susceptibility    to    infec- 
tion, 393. 
Neurin,  395, 

New  England,  summer  climate,  41. 
Nipples  of  nursing  woman,  62. 

to  cleanse,  265. 
Nitrogen  in  air,  12. 
Non-siphoning  traps,  342. 
Norwegian  saucepan,  257. 
Nose-bleed  in  school,  100. 
Number  of  meals  needed,  261. 
Nursing-bottle,  264. 
Nutrient  gelatine,  381,  382. 


Obesity,  diet  for,  279. 
Ocean  and  climate,  8. 

climates,  34. 

for  garbage  disposal,  368. 
Odors  produced  by  bacteria,  389. 
Offices  ill-ventilated,  120. 
Old  age,  diet,  269. 

glasses  for,  69. 
Oleomargarine,  233. 
Olive  oil,  241. 
Omaha  sewers  (small),  320. 
One-eyed,  occupation  for,  67. 


Open  grate  fires,  166-169,  202. 

Opium-eating,  249. 

Optional  parasites  (bacteria),  390. 

Ore  roasters,  15, 

Organic  matter  in  water,  289,  290, 

294. 
Outer  garments,  45,  52. 
Overstrain,  72-75. 
Oxidation  by  bacteria,  3,  389. 
Oxygen  and  bacteria,  383. 

in  air,  11. 
Oysters,  219. 
Ozone,  12. 


Painted  surface  (disinfection),  443. 
Parasites  causing  disease,  222-228, 
400. 

of  meat,  222, 

destroyed  by  cooking,  254. 
Parasitic  bacteria,  390,  400. 
Paris  green  and  vegetables,  332. 
Pasteurization,  230,  385, 
Pastry,  238. 
Patent  fuels,  171. 
Pavement,  155-158. 
Peas  and  beans,  239,  241,  268. 

to  cook,  258. 
People's  baths,  58. 
Peptones,  272. 
Pertussis,  419. 
Phagocyte  theory,  393. 
Photometer,  125. 
Phthisis  [see  Tuberculosis\, 
Physical  exercise,  70. 
Pillows,  54 
Pipes  for  sewers,  320. 

for  water,  312,  313. 
Plasmodium  of  malaria,  403. 
Platinum  wire,  381. 
Plague,  409. 
Pleasure  travel,  39,  40. 
Plumbing,  333. 
Pneumonia,  424. 
Poisonous  disinfectants,  388,  439. 

colors,  51. 
Poisons  produced  by  bacteria,  390, 

391- 
Pork,  examination  of,  223,  224, 


INDEX 


479 


Port  wine,  245. 

Potato  (for  bacteria  culture),  381, 

Potatoes,    238. 

Porcelain  filters,  308. 

Poultry,  222. 

Powder  for  sweaty  feet,  47,  50. 

on  the  face,  61. 
Power  for  ventilating  fans,  206. 
Pregnancy,  diet,  268. 
"Prepared  foods,"  222,  261. 
Privies,  privy  vaults,  360-364. 
Privy  contamination  of  water,  295. 
298. 
vaults,  disinfection  of,  451. 
Printed  matter,  type  for,  102,  103. 
Proteids,  214 
Protozoa,  400. 
Psychrometer,  18. 
Ptomaines,  226,  390. 
Puerperal  fever,  225,  416,  417. 
Pure    air,   amount    required,   194- 

197. 
Pure  water  necessary,  283,  285. 
Pure  waters,  289. 
Purgatives,  harmfulness  of,  275. 
Putrefaction  due  to  bacteria,  389. 


Quarantine,  452. 
Quicklime,  441. 


Rabies,  395. 

Rags  and  small-pox,  ill,  423. 

Rag-pickers,  ill. 

Rails  for  street-car  tracks,  158. 

Railway  accidents,  116. 

Rainfall,  26,  22,  23. 

and  water  supply,  300,  302. 
Rain-water,  299. 
Rapid  eating.  262. 
Recreation  needed,  71,  120. 
Recurrent  fever,  404. 
Registers,  179. 
Regularity  of  meals,  261. 
Relative  humidity,  19,  23,  172. 
Relief  against  summer  heat,  192. 


Reservoirs,  305,  312. 
Rice,  238. 
Riding,  85. 

Rheumatism,  diet  for,  276. 
River  water,  289,  299. 
Roofs,  146. 

and  rain-water,  299,  300. 
Rooms,  disinfection  of,  444-446. 

minimum  size,  197. 
Room  space  required,  197. 
Rotheln,  420. 
Rowing,  82. 
Rubber  boots,  etc.,  47. 

rings,  240. 
Rubeola,  422. 


Saccharin  for  sweetening,  279. 

"  Safety  fuel,"  172. 

Safety  traps,  341. 

Salicylic  acid  (disinfectant),  387. 

in  milk,  230. 

in  beverages,  245. 

test  for,  230. 
Salt.  218,  241. 
Salted  meat,  221. 
Salts  supplied  by  mixed  diet,  283. 
Sampling  water  for  tests,  293. 
Sand  filters  for  water,  309. 
Sanitation,  advantages  of,  397-399. 
Saprophytic  bacteria,  390. 
Saprol,  363. 
Sausages,  222,  226. 
Scarlatina,  90,  420. 
Scarlet  fever,  90,  420. 
Schizomycetes,  378. 
School-buildings,  91. 
School  desks,   103-106. 
School-rooms,  fresh  air  for,  196. 

space  for  each  pupil,  197. 
School-room  ventilation,  210. 
Scrofula,  425. 
Sea  climates,  34. 
Seasons    and    infectious    disease, 

402. 
Seats  for  scholars,  104-106- 
Self-purification  of  water,  296. 
Serum  treatment  of  diseases,  395, 
Sewage,  315,  325. 


48o 


INDEX 


Sewer-air,  323. 

Sewer  contamination  of  water,  295. 

Sewer-gas,  323,  324. 

Sewers.  315,  317. 

superiority  of,  364,  367. 
Shaving,  62. 
Sherry,  245. 
Shoes,  48-50. 
Siemens'  gas-burner,  135. 
Sinks,  357. 

Siphonage  (plumbing),  336. 
Sites  (selection  of),  2. 

to  be  dry,  140. 
Skating,  83. 
Skim  milk,  22g. 
Skin,  to  be  kept  clean,  56. 

giving  off  warmth,  42. 

treatment  of  wound  of,  ill. 
Slaughtering,  226. 
Sleeping-rooms,  size  of,  153. 
Slivers,  to  remove  from  eye,  67. 
Slope  of  sewers,  321. 
Slop-sinks,  355. 
Small-pox,  394,  422,  423. 

from  rags,  ill. 
Smoke  prevention,  162,  163, 

test  for  house  drainage,  212. 
Smooth  wall  surfaces  cleanest,  154. 
Snow,  removal  of,  159. 
Soaps,  their  purity,  etc.,  57. 
Soft  water  for  cooking  peas,  258. 
Soil  and  climate,  i,  2. 

and  malaria,  404,  405. 

dry,  as  deodorizer,  etc.,  365, 

431. 
purification  of  sewage,  328. 
Soil-pipes,  334,  346-348. 
Sore  throat,  89,  91,  109,  419. 
Soups,  256. 

Soya  bread  in  diabetes,  279. 
Specific  gravity  of  urine,  282. 
Spices,  218,  241. 
Spirilla,  spirillum,  380. 
Spittoons,  426,  450. 
Splenic  fever,  225. 
Spores,  380,  381. 
Sports  and  games,  76,  77. 
Spring  water,  259,  298,  303,  304. 
Sprinkling  streets,  158. 
S-traps,  333. 
Staircases,  151. 


Standard     disinfectant     solutions, 

440. 
Standard  of  good  water,  288,  294, 

300. 
Stand-pipes,  312. 
Staphylococci,  380. 
Starch  unfit  for  babes,  265. 
Starvation,  214. 
Starvation  diet  and  "water-cures,** 

280. 
Steam  for  disinfection,   386,  434- 

439- 

for  drainage  pipes,  358. 

jets  (for  ventilating),  202. 
Steam-heating,  180-183. 
Steaming  vegetables,  258. 
Steamships,  ventilation  of,  211. 
Steps,  151. 
Sterilization  of  milk,  230,  23I. 

of  water,  306-308. 
Sterilized  milk,  231. 
Stills  for  water,  306. 
Stoking,  115. 
Stone  pavement,  155. 
Storms  (in  U.  S.),  30,  31. 
Stoves,  162,  169-173,  251. 
Strawberries,  240. 
Streams  and  sewage,  296,  316. 
Street  cleaning,  159. 
Streptococci,  380. 
Strife    among   bacteria,  316,   361, 

376,  383- 
Sub-soil  irrigation  (sewage),  329. 
Subways,  133,  158. 
Suction,  in  waste-pipes,  337. 
Sunlight  and  bacteria,  4,  159,  316, 
384,  426,  432. 

and  health,    124,    384,   426, 
432. 
Sugar,  added  to  milk,  265. 

in  diabetic  diet,  278. 
Sulphur  (disinfection),  441. 
Sulphuric  acid  (disinfectant),  386, 

413,  441- 
Summer,  choice  of  location,  40,  41. 

diet,  215,  269. 

diseases  (infectious),  402. 

heat,  relief  against,  I92. 

ventilation,  209. 
Sun  destroys  bacteria,  4. 
Sunshine  recorder,  23. 


INDEX 


48: 


Sunstroke  (and  humidity),  19. 
Superfluous  hairs,  61. 
Superheated  steam,  181,  434. 
Surface  irrigation  (sewage),  329. 
Susceptibility  to  disease,  392,  394. 
Sweetness  of  saccharin,  279. 
Swimming,  82. 
Syphilis,  415. 


Tapeworm,  224. 

Tea,  218,  242,  243,  259. 

Teeth  and  mouth,  care  of,  62-64. 

decay  of,  62,  389. 
Temperature,  25,  26,  27. 

at    which     bacteria   perish, 
3S4. 

of  food  and  drink,  259,  264. 

of  ground,  6. 

of  living-rooms,  160. 
Tennis.  84. 

Test  for  lead,  copper,  tin,  252,  253. 
Tests  of  impure  air,  14,  15,  195. 
Testing  house-drainage,  etc.,  212, 
345,  358. 

privies,  etc.,  363. 

water,  288-298. 
Tetanus,  159,  417. 
Thermometers,  25. 
Thermostat,  192. 
Tight  clothes,  45,  51. 
Tippling,  248. 
Toasting  bread,  258. 
Tobacco,  67,  218,  242. 

dust,  113. 
Tomatoes,  239. 

Tongue,  to  cleanse  in  fever,  272. 
Total  solids  in  water,  292,  294. 
Toughness  of  meat,  219. 
Toxalbumin,  418. 
Toxines,  390,  396. 
Trachoma,  89,  417. 
Traps,  318,  333-344. 
Treatment  of  sewage,  326. 
Trees  and  forests,  2,  7. 

and  malaria,  141. 

in  city  streets,  143. 
Trichinae,  221-224,  254. 
Tripe,  256. 
Tropical  climate,  10. 


Tuberculin,  42S. 

Tuberculosis,  224.    228.   393,  425, 
446. 

and  room-dust.  110. 

bacillus    of,    224,   228,  383, 
393,  450. 

climate  for,  35-38. 

testing  milk  for,  228. 

diet  in,  273. 

of  meat,  224. 

destroyed  by  cooking,  254. 
Turbid  water,  308. 
Turkish  baths,  60. 
Type,  illustrative  sizes,  etc.,  103. 
Typewriters,  66. 
Typhoid  fever,  406. 

milk  for  diet  in,  272. 
Typhus  fever,  415,  455. 
Tyrotoxicon,  259. 


U 


Udder  of  tuberculous  cow,  228. 
Urinals,  356. 

Urine  should  not  become  concen- 
trated, 282. 


Vacations,  40. 
Vaccination,  394,  422,  423, 
Vital  statistics,  457. 
Varicella,  420. 
Variola,  422. 
Variolization,   394. 
Varioloid,  422. 
Veal,  221. 
Vegetables,  238,  241,  258. 

in  diabetic  diet,  278. 

need  to  be  cooked,  332. 
Venereal  diseases,  415. 
Ventilating-pipe  (plumbing),   334, 

338-340,  344,  352. 
Ventilation,  194-212. 

for  artificial  light,  136. 

for  cow  stables,  212. 

of  privies,  360. 

of  sewers,  318. 

of  water-closet,  354. 
Vents  (plumbing),  337,  343,  353. 


482 


INDEX 


w 

Walkiag,  80,  81,  87. 

Wall-paper  containing  arsenic,  153. 

to  disinfect,  442. 
Walls,  disinfection  of,  442. 

double,  145. 

water-tight,  145,  146. 
Warming,  t6o,  166. 

school-rooms,  95-97. 
Warmth,  clothing  for,  43-45. 

and    bacteria,    4,    lo,    226, 
384,  402. 
Wash-bowls,  356. 
Waste-pipes,  333. 
Water  and  malaria,  405. 

and  typhoid  fever,  407. 

and  water  supplies,  285. 

in  dyspepsia,  274. 

in  fever,  271. 

means  for  improving,  305, 

of  cemeteries,  376. 

pipes,  357.  , 

supply,  selection  of,  300. 

to  be  boiled,  283. 

with  meals,  260. 
Water-closets,  349-355. 

disinfection  of,  450. 
"  Water  cures,"  277,  279. 
Waterproof  clothing,  47. 
Water-seal,  loss  of,  336,  337. 

(plumbing),  333,  335-344- 
Water-works,  303. 
Weather  probabilities,  30, 
Wells,  297-299,  304. 

precautions  with,  297,  299. 
Welsbach  burner,  135. 
Western  routes,  35,  39. 


Wet-nurse,  food  for,  269. 
Whooping-cough,  419. 
Wind  and  wind  gauge,  33. 
Windows,  152. 

high  ones  best,  126. 

of  school-rooms,  93. 
Window-shades  and   curtains,  93. 

126,  127. 
Winds,  32,  33. 
Wine,  244,  245,  248,  262. 

and  bacteria,  287,  41''. 
Winter  diseases  (infectious),  403. 

ventilation,  208. 
Wolpert's  test  for  CO2,  15. 
Wood  pavement,  156. 
Woollen  clothing,  44,  53. 
Work,  regulating  hours  of  in  sum- 
mer, 193. 
Workshops,  121. 
Wound  dressings,  disinfection  of, 

447. 
Writing,  light  for,  126. 

taught  in  school,  102. 


Y-joint  (drain-pipe),  321. 
Yellow  fever,  414. 


Zinc,  testing  water  for,  290. 
Zinc  chloride  (disinfectant),  439. 
Zinc-coated  water-pipes,  313. 
Zooglea,  380. 
Zymotic  diseases,  400. 


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